Integrating Governance and Social Capital in Solid Waste Management on Small Islands: A Case Study of Banda Neira Island, Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province, Indonesia. [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]

Дата публикации: 22-07-2026 05:52:45

Background Solid waste management on small islands is constrained by limited infrastructure, fragmented governance, and ecological vulnerability. Existing approaches emphasize technical solutions while giving insufficient attention to community social capital. This study examines how governance and social capital can be integrated to improve waste management on Banda Neira Island, Indonesia. Methods A qualitative case study approach was employed using semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, supported by document analysis. Data were analyzed through qualitative content analysis using a theory-informed framework comprising bonding, bridging, and linking social capital while remaining open to context-specific insights. Findings/Result The findings indicate that waste management challenges on Banda Neira Island are driven primarily by fragmented governance, weak policy implementation, limited institutional coordination, unresolved landfill land tenure, and inadequate infrastructure. Community social capital complements formal governance by strengthening collective action, fostering collaboration among stakeholders, and improving access to external resources. Their integration enhances participation, institutional coordination, capacity building, and adaptive waste management. Conclusions Sustainable waste management on small islands requires governance approaches that extend beyond infrastructure by incorporating locally embedded social capital. This study contributes to small island governance literature by demonstrating that social capital is a structurally embedded component of effective and adaptive waste governance. These findings provide practical insights for policymakers and practitioners in small island and peripheral coastal regions facing similar ecological and institutional constraints.

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Rubianto L, Lion JCL, Debora E et al. Integrating Governance and Social Capital in Solid Waste Management on Small Islands: A Case Study of Banda Neira Island, Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province, Indonesia. [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]. F1000Research 2026, 15:1197 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.186117.1)

Research Article

[version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]

Lidia Rubianto

https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7933-1353

¹, Julian Claudia Leonita Lion

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7359-3294

¹, Easter Debora

https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2008-7171

¹, [...] Maria Fatima Ola Lewoblolon

https://orcid.org/0009-0006-5305-7408

¹, Diandra Rachmah Maulidahati

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-8556-4204

¹, Januarta Dwi Kusmayanti

https://orcid.org/0009-0007-6263-370X

¹, Anna Meiliza Adriaansz

https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4672-7106

¹, Muhammad Fajri Nugraha

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0298-5370

¹, Nabila Kalsum Tuanany

https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9359-6681

², Randy Victor Wahab Wattimena

https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3486-2799

Lidia Rubianto

https://orcid.org/0009-0007-7933-1353

¹, Julian Claudia Leonita Lion

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-7359-3294

¹, [...] Easter Debora

https://orcid.org/0009-0004-2008-7171

¹, Maria Fatima Ola Lewoblolon

https://orcid.org/0009-0006-5305-7408

¹, Diandra Rachmah Maulidahati

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-8556-4204

¹, Januarta Dwi Kusmayanti

https://orcid.org/0009-0007-6263-370X

¹, Anna Meiliza Adriaansz

https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4672-7106

¹, Muhammad Fajri Nugraha

https://orcid.org/0009-0005-0298-5370

¹, Nabila Kalsum Tuanany

https://orcid.org/0009-0007-9359-6681

², Randy Victor Wahab Wattimena

https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3486-2799

Author details Author details

¹ Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of School of Architecture, Planning, and Policy Development, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung, Jawa Barat, 40132, Indonesia
² Program Faculty of Geological Engineering, Universitas Padjadjaran, Indonesia, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung, West Java, 45360, Indonesia
³ Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Engineering, Universitas Islam Bandung, Indonesia, Universitas Islam Bandung, Bandung, West Java, 40132, Indonesia

Lidia Rubianto
Roles: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Project Administration, Writing – Original Draft Preparation

Julian Claudia Leonita Lion
Roles: Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Easter Debora
Roles: Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Maria Fatima Ola Lewoblolon
Roles: Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Diandra Rachmah Maulidahati
Roles: Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Januarta Dwi Kusmayanti
Roles: Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Anna Meiliza Adriaansz
Roles: Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Muhammad Fajri Nugraha
Roles: Data Curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Visualization, Writing – Review & Editing

Nabila Kalsum Tuanany
Roles: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing

Randy Victor Wahab Wattimena
Roles: Conceptualization, Validation, Writing – Review & Editing

OPEN PEER REVIEW

REVIEWER STATUS AWAITING PEER REVIEW

Abstract

Background

Solid waste management on small islands is constrained by limited infrastructure, fragmented governance, and ecological vulnerability. Existing approaches emphasize technical solutions while giving insufficient attention to community social capital. This study examines how governance and social capital can be integrated to improve waste management on Banda Neira Island, Indonesia.

Methods

A qualitative case study approach was employed using semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders, supported by document analysis. Data were analyzed through qualitative content analysis using a theory-informed framework comprising bonding, bridging, and linking social capital while remaining open to context-specific insights.

Findings/Result

The findings indicate that waste management challenges on Banda Neira Island are driven primarily by fragmented governance, weak policy implementation, limited institutional coordination, unresolved landfill land tenure, and inadequate infrastructure. Community social capital complements formal governance by strengthening collective action, fostering collaboration among stakeholders, and improving access to external resources. Their integration enhances participation, institutional coordination, capacity building, and adaptive waste management.

Conclusions

Sustainable waste management on small islands requires governance approaches that extend beyond infrastructure by incorporating locally embedded social capital. This study contributes to small island governance literature by demonstrating that social capital is a structurally embedded component of effective and adaptive waste governance. These findings provide practical insights for policymakers and practitioners in small island and peripheral coastal regions facing similar ecological and institutional constraints.

Keywords

Governance; Social Capital; Solid Waste Management; Small Islands; Banda Neira Island

Corresponding author: Nabila Kalsum Tuanany Competing interests: No competing interests were disclosed.

Grant information: This publication was supported by the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education Agency (Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan/LPDP). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis the decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright: © 2026 Rubianto L et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. How to cite: Rubianto L, Lion JCL, Debora E et al. Integrating Governance and Social Capital in Solid Waste Management on Small Islands: A Case Study of Banda Neira Island, Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province, Indonesia. [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]. F1000Research 2026, 15:1197 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.186117.1) First published: 22 Jul 2026, 15:1197 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.186117.1) Latest published: 22 Jul 2026, 15:1197 (https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.186117.1)

Introduction

Small islands face distinctive development challenges due to their limited land area, ecological fragility, geographic isolation, and constrained governance capacity. These characteristics shape not only environmental vulnerability but also the social, economic, and institutional conditions under which resources are managed.¹^,² In many small island contexts, limited infrastructure, restricted fiscal capacity, and fragmented institutional arrangements make it difficult to address basic environmental services in a sustainable manner. As a result, small islands are particularly vulnerable to development pressures that threaten long-term environmental and socio-economic sustainability.

Among these challenges, solid waste management represents one of the most persistent and critical issues. Limited land availability, inadequate waste collection and treatment infrastructure, and weak institutional coordination constrain waste management systems on small islands more severely than in mainland regions. Rapid population growth driven by tourism development further intensifies waste generation, placing additional pressure on already fragile waste collection, processing, and disposal systems.³ Although tourism provides important economic opportunities, it also generates significant waste streams that, if poorly managed, exacerbate environmental degradation and undermine the ecological foundations of island economies .⁴^,⁵ Moreover, the small scale of island settlements and uneven population distribution often render recycling economically unviable, except for waste types with high market value, and even these typically require external subsidies or inter-regional cooperation to remain operational.⁶ Consequently, weaknesses in physical infrastructure, financial resources, technical capacity, environmental awareness, and institutional governance continue to hinder effective waste management on small islands.

Banda Neira Island, located in Central Maluku Regency, Indonesia, exemplifies these challenges. Despite its strategic importance as a tourism destination, Banda Neira faces significant constraints related to land availability, freshwater scarcity, and environmental vulnerability. Historically renowned as a global trading center during the spice trade era.⁷ Banda Neira is today recognized for its exceptional marine biodiversity and cultural heritage. Situated within the Coral Triangle, the island is designated as a priority area for marine conservation and is a leading destination for diving and marine tourism.⁸ Renowned for its historical heritage and pristine underwater biodiversity, the Island has become a premier destination for world-class diving and snorkelling.⁹ However, the island’s physical characteristics include the absence of rivers, limited freshwater sources, and a varied topography of low-lying coastal zones and hilly terrain, which together make it highly susceptible to environmental risks such as tidal flooding, landslides, volcanic activity, and seismic hazards.

The growth of the tourism sector on Banda Neira Island has boosted the local economy, but it has also caused environmental damage due to tourism waste and coastal development. This vulnerability is exacerbated by the impact of the climate crisis, as evidenced by the decline in nutmeg quality, shifts in fishing grounds, and damage to coral reef ecosystems.¹⁰ The Coral Triangle Centre (CTC), in collaboration with the local government, revealed that the estimated daily waste load reaches 538 kg.¹¹ In a clean up initiative, the Moluccas Coastal Care NGOs and the Banda Naira Community collected 736.11 kilograms of plastic waste from coastal areas.¹² This situation is exacerbated by limited land, inadequate waste management infrastructure, and an increase in the number of tourists and population growth, which has led to the accumulation of waste, especially in coastal areas and settlements. This situation not only threatens environmental sustainability and the quality of life of the community, but also risks damaging the image of tourism, which is the backbone of the local economy. Although the tourism sector on Banda Neira Island continues to grow and contribute significantly to the local economy, the waste problem is becoming increasingly complex and worrying. The complaints that continue to appear in the mass media reflect collective anxiety over inadequate waste management systems and a lack of basic infrastructure support. This study will provide an in-depth look at the environmental pressures that have led some residents to dump waste directly into the sea out of desperation due to the lack of viable management alternatives.

In ecologically vulnerable small island contexts such as Banda Neira, the need for integrated and sustainable solid waste management has become increasingly urgent, yet persistent weaknesses in institutional governance continue to limit effective implementation. Existing waste management approaches tend to prioritize technical and infrastructural solutions while paying insufficient attention to the governance processes and social capacities that shape everyday waste practices. At the same time, the Banda Neira community possesses strong social capital embedded in customary institutions, collective norms, and social networks that influence cooperation and decision making at the local level. This study examines the structural and operational challenges of solid waste management on Banda Neira Island, analyzes the dynamics of waste governance and stakeholder interactions, and demonstrates how community social capital, expressed through bonding, bridging, and linking relationships, can be integrated with formal governance arrangements to support participatory, adaptive, and sustainable waste management in small island settings.

2. Methods

This study adopts a qualitative single-case study approach to examine the governance and social capital dynamics of solid waste management on Banda Neira Island. A case study approach was selected to enable an in-depth, context-sensitive understanding of how formal governance structure interact with informal social mechanisms in a small island setting characterized by ecological vulnerability, limited infrastructure, and complex institutional arrangement; conditions that are difficult to captured through quantitative methods alone. Banda Neira Island was purposively selected as a critical case because it exemplifies the compounded governance and social capital dynamics typical of small tourism-dependent islands in Eastern Indonesia, while also offering unusually rich, well-documented social capital traditions (e.g. customary institution, waste bank initiatives) that make the interaction between governance and social capital analytically visible.

2.1. Data collection

Primary data were collected through semi-structured interviews conducted with two purposively selected informants who occupy distinct and complementary positions within Banda Neira Island’s waste management landscape. Informants were selected purposively based on their direct, sustained involvement in waste-related practices on the island. Given the small population and limited pool of individuals with substantive, first-hand institutional knowledge of waste governance on Banda Neira, the sample reflects the two informant categories that were both accessible and highly informative for this study. The first informant was a waste bank owner/initiator, a man in his 40s who provided direct operational insight into grassroots and NGO-linked waste management practices, reflecting the linking and bridging dimensions of social capital discussed in this study. The second informant was a local customary leader in his 60s, whose role as a custodian of customary norms and institutions provided insight into bonding social capital embedded within Banda Neira’s traditional community structures.

Semi-structured interviews were chosen to allow flexibility in probing key themes while enabling informants to articulate their experiences, perspectives, and interpretations of waste governance challenges in their own terms. This approach facilitated the exploration of both formal institutional arrangements and informal community-based practices. The interviews were conducted by phone in local language, audio-recorded with verbal informed consent, and subsequently transcribed and translated into English for analysis. Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to the interviews because the interviews were conducted remotely by telephone, making written consent impractical; participants were informed about the study objectives, voluntary participation, confidentiality measures, and their right to withdraw at any time.

In addition to primary data, secondary data were obtained through a systematic review of relevant literature and documents, including peer-reviewed journal articles, policy and regulatory documents, institutional reports, media coverage, and publications related to small island development, waste management, governance, and social capital. These sources provided contextual and analytical support for interpreting empirical findings and situating the case of Banda Neira within broader scholarly debates.

2.2. Analytical framework and data analysis

Data analysis was conducted using qualitative content analysis. Interview transcripts and documentary sources were systematically examined to identify recurring themes, patterns, and relationships relevant to waste management governance and community participation. The analysis employed a theory-informed analytical framework in which social capital was operationalized through three dimensions: bonding, bridging, and linking social capital. These categories were derived deductively from established social capital literature and used as sensitizing concepts to guide data coding and interpretation.

Bonding social capital was identified through expressions of social cohesion, mutual trust, customary institutions, and collective practices within homogeneous community groups. Bridging social capital was examined through interactions and collaborative relationships among diverse social groups, including indigenous residents, migrants, tourism actors, and civil society organizations. Linking social capital was analyzed by assessing vertical relationships between local communities and external actors such as government institutions, non-governmental organizations, academic institutions, and donor agencies, particularly in relation to access to resources, authority, and decision-making processes.

While these theoretical categories provided an initial analytical structure, the analysis remained open to inductive insights emerging from the data, allowing locally specific meanings and practices to refine and contextualize the interpretation of social capital and governance dynamics. This combined deductive and inductive approach strengthened analytical rigor while ensuring sensitivity to the socio-cultural context of Banda Neira Island.

2.3. Validity

To enhance the credibility of the analysis, triangulation was applied by comparing insights across multiple data sources, including interviews, policy documents, and media reports. This process enabled cross-verification of findings and reduced the risk of single-source bias. The integration of empirical evidence with established theoretical concepts further ensured conceptual consistency and analytical depth in examining the interaction between governance structures and community social capital in small island waste management.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Identification of solid waste management problem

Banda Neira Island nevertheless faces significant solid waste management issues despite its encouraging growth potential. On Banda Neira Island, waste management techniques are still mostly traditional and are typified by the following circumstances:

1. Waste collection and disposal practices
Solid waste collection on Banda Neira Island is generally carried out independently by local residents or through locally provided cleaning services, which are limited in coverage and operate only in certain areas. Waste is generated from multiple sources, including residential areas, tourism zones, and coastal areas, and is subsequently transported to the final disposal site. The landfill was initially located near the hospital and has since been relocated to Neira, close to the airport. The availability of 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) Waste Processing Facility is very limited, resulting in the majority of waste being directly disposed of at the landfill. At the disposal site, waste is predominantly managed through open burning or simple landfilling practices, reflecting the absence of advanced treatment facilities and the continued reliance on an open dumping system.
2. Organized waste collection through waste banks
Organized waste collection is carried out through waste banks, one of which is managed by the Cahaya Samudera Indonesia Foundation.¹³ Community members are encouraged to collect waste, particularly plastic waste, and deliver it to the waste bank. In return, residents are able to exchange the collected waste for basic food commodities or cooking oil produced from recycled plastic.¹⁴ The identification and confirmation of these issues and challenges were conducted using a content analysis approach, in which issues were derived directly from interview transcript texts. The interviews involved key informants, including native residents of Banda Neira Island who serve as community leaders, waste bank initiators, and representatives of the local government. The findings are presented as follows:

“The waste problem has remained unresolved to this day and has become the issue that confuses me the most, as if no one is able to address it. Although a landfill site has already been designated, there has so far been no concrete policy implemented to resolve this problem.” Translated interview transcript with an informant

This statement reflects a high level of frustration expressed by the informant regarding solid waste management issues. It suggests that the problem is perceived as highly complex and largely untouched by effective solutions. Although the location of the final disposal site has been formally planned, significant challenges persist in relation to the provision and management of this public facility.

Land owned by local residents was forced to be sold so that it could be used as the landfill site. This situation reflects overlapping needs. On the one hand, the government intends to compensate the land for use as a landfill, but on the other hand, there are certain individuals who claim ownership of the land.” Translated interview transcript with an informant

This statement highlights indications that landowners face a dilemma between retaining their land ownership rights and relinquishing their land for public facility purposes. Nevertheless, a more fundamental issue persists, namely the absence of clear land tenure status for the land designated as the final disposal site. This uncertainty has the potential to generate conflicts of interest and to hinder the long term sustainability of solid waste management in the area. This condition is further reinforced by the emergence of public fundraising initiatives aimed at acquiring land for the landfill, which have sparked both support and opposition toward the proposed policy.¹⁵

“Finally, because people need to dispose of their rubbish, they throw it into the sea, which causes the sea to become polluted. Who wants to take care of this? There are those who want to take care of it, but where will the funds come from? There are NGOs that see this problem, but once they obtain funding, if the funds are not distributed, how can they manage it?” Translation of transcript of interview with an Informant

The above narrative describes a pattern of behaviour whereby people choose to dump waste into the sea due to the inadequate availability of landfill sites as a result of limited management resources and infrastructure. This is also confirmed by an analysis of a news report containing a documentary video highlighting the critical condition of waste management in Banda Neira. The video shows the volume of plastic and organic waste in the area continuing to pile up, exceeding disposal capacity. This is due to landfill sites that are considered inadequate and lack sorting or further processing facilities, resulting in some waste being burned or dumped indiscriminately and overflowing onto the roads.¹⁶ Additionally, there is a lack of suitable waste disposal sites due to the closure of the original location near the hospital without a replacement solution. This closure was reactive and demonstrates a lack of coordination in spatial planning and sanitation. As a result, the community disposes of waste into waterways, which is carried directly into the sea during rain, triggering a sanitation crisis and coastal environmental pollution.

The narrative of the interview transcripts and news collected from the mass media reflects the complexity of waste management issues at the local level, involving policy factors, land conflicts, budget constraints, and environmental impacts. Thus, the waste management issues on Banda Neira Island are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. Problem structure of solid waste management on banda neira island.Problem StructureExplanation Main ProblemSolid waste management in Banda Neira is ineffective and has resulted in an environmental crisis Root Causes Explanation Governance

a) Absence of concrete policies and weak governmental coordination in resolving land ownership issues related to the landfill site
b) Limited policy support and insufficient funding for the provision of solid waste management infrastructure
c) Solid waste management policies remain fragmented, sectoral, and lack institutional integration

Operationalization

a) Lack of adequate and properly managed temporary waste collection facilities
b) The existing landfill is not equipped with waste sorting or further treatment facilities, resulting in open burning and uncontrolled dumping practices

Resources

a) Insufficient financial resources to support operational costs of waste management service
b) Community participation in waste management remains partial and fragmented, heavily reliant on non governmental organizations (NGOs), and does not yet reflect a holistic and integrated approach

Impact Explanation Public distrustProlonged unresolved land-ownership conflicts have eroded public trust in local government institutions Changes in Community BehaviorThe absence of adequate waste disposal facilities has led residents to dispose of waste into coastal waters and drainage systems Inadequate waste managementAccumulated waste is not subjected to sorting or further processing, leading to open burning or illegal dumping, which exacerbates waste accumulation and degrades overall quality of life Environmental degradationDegradation of marine ecosystems, which represent a key ecological and economic asset of the Banda Neira Islands

3.2. Governance dynamics of solid waste management

The dynamics of waste management governance refer to the identification of waste problems on Banda Neira Island, which reveal various interrelated challenges and highlight the weak role of government institutions, from the local government to the village level, in comprehensively managing this issue. The following is a description of the dynamics of waste management governance issues on Banda Neira Island:

1. Concrete policies and cross sector coordination
The Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries (KKP), as directed in Presidential Regulation No. 83 of 2018 concerning Marine Waste Management through marine conservation programmes in the Banda region, has initiated collaborative activities such as beach and sea clean up actions carried out in the Banda Sea Marine Tourism Park area. These activities are part of the national commitment to expand marine conservation areas to 32.5 million hectares by 2030. In line with this, waste management policy in Central Maluku Regency has been regulated through Central Maluku Regency Regulation No. 11 of 2022 concerning Waste Management, which serves as a guideline for technical local government departments in formulating waste management programmes and activities. In this context, Banda Neira Island has a strategic position because it is not only the responsibility of the local government but also part of the central government's responsibility, especially after being designated as a National Strategic Tourism Area and included in the Banda Neira Development Masterplan for 2025–2045. The synergy of these various policies is expected to encourage the realisation of a more integrated and effective waste management system on Banda Neira Island. Nevertheless, the implementation of solid waste management policies in Banda Neira Island remains constrained by several fundamental challenges, including:

a) Suboptimal policy implementation, particularly in integrating solid waste management systems from the household level to coastal areas
b) Insufficient cross-sectoral coordination, resulting in fragmented and unsustainable waste management efforts
c) Unresolved landfill land tenure issues, characterized by ownership disputes between landowners and certain actors. This lack of legal clarity has generated social tensions and constrained long-term planning for waste management in the area

These conditions indicate that effective solid waste management in Banda Neira requires more integrated policy interventions, strengthened institutional capacity, and the comprehensive and equitable resolution of land tenure disputes

2. Infrastructure financing support
Financial support for the provision of solid waste management infrastructure remains highly limited. Interview findings reveal significant funding constraints, which are reflected in poorly organized waste treatment and transportation facilities. These limitations have resulted in restricted waste management practices, despite the critical need for effective waste processing in small island contexts, where environmental pollution risks are particularly high.
3. Adaptive and participatory governance approach
An adaptive and participatory governance approach has not been adequately implemented. This condition weakens efforts to create a sustainable waste management system, especially on small islands that are ecologically vulnerable, such as Banda Neira. The dynamics of governance at the local level are reflected in how actors such as the community, community leaders, the government, and community organisations interact and take on roles in responding to waste issues. These interactions are often informal, but they have a strong influence on waste management practices. One example of a best practice is the involvement of NGOs through the Cahaya Samudera Indonesia Foundation, which was initiated by the indigenous community of Banda Neira Island, led by Mr. Magafira Ali, who is also an environmental activist.¹⁷ Through its initiatives, the foundation has successfully mobilised community participation and local youth in waste management efforts based on the principles of reduce, reuse, and recycle (3R). These activities not only raised environmental awareness but also produced products with economic value ekonomi.¹⁸ The foundation played a role in establishing a Waste Bank and also received support from donor agencies. One of the complaints raised by Waste Bank is the limited number of employees handling marine waste transportation, coupled with the fact that transportation is only carried out twice a week. This condition poses a significant obstacle considering the high volume of waste dumped into the sea, which requires more intensive and sustainable handling, and the lack of full awareness and support from the Banda Island community.
4. Representation of Island communities’ aspirations in waste management infrastructure needs
Based on the interview findings, persistent grievances were identified among local communities regarding the unmet needs for waste management infrastructure, despite these aspirations having been repeatedly conveyed through regional legislative representation channels. On Banda Neira Island, the limited representation and participation of indigenous residents in the planning and decision making processes related to waste management constitute a major barrier to the effective provision of waste management infrastructure. In this context, the presence of local champions or community driven change agents from among the indigenous population of Banda Neira Island emerges as a critical element in bridging community aspirations with policymaking processes. These local champions function not only as agents of change but also as intermediaries connecting community needs with policy design and the implementation of waste management programs. Therefore, the active engagement of local communities supported by socially legitimate champions with decision making capacity represents a strategic approach to fostering responsive and equitable waste governance in small island contexts

By examining these dynamics, it is important to understand the extent to which local governance capacities can accommodate the integration of community initiatives and formal policies, as well as how the social capital possessed by residents can become a driving force in developing a sustainable waste management system.

3.3. Social capital in local communities

The concept of social capital is relevant for analysing the role of social networks and civil society on small islands in local communities, not only in joint management and decision-making, but also in the acceptance of adaptation measures and the dissemination of information.¹⁹ Therefore in the context of waste management in Banda Neira, social capital can serve as complementary capital to encourage effective and sustainable collective action in waste management on small islands. Social capital within the Banda Neira Island community is a critical factor in structuring social relations, fostering solidarity, and enhancing collective capacity to respond to local challenges, particularly in the context of waste management. The social capital of the Banda Island community is identified as follows:

1. Bonding social capital
Strong social cohesion exists among community members within customary villages that share common ethnic backgrounds, particularly through socio religious activities and mutual cooperation. The strong social ties and solidarity of the Banda Island community are reflected in various customary traditions and rituals that foster brotherhood among village members and the wider community, and which also constitute an important cultural asset of the Banda Islands. These diverse traditions and cultural practices reinforce social relations and community cohesion in collectively addressing shared challenges.²⁰ Such cohesion is evident in the preservation of cultural heritage through rituals such as Buka Kampung tradition, conducted by indigenous communities, and Cuci Parigi Pusaka tradition. Beyond their function as physical maintenance practices, these rituals carry deep religious significance and serve as mechanisms for safeguarding ancestral heritage while strengthening social bonds. The presence of strong social capital within the Banda Neira Island community particularly in the form of bonding social capital built upon historical proximity, shared cultural identity, and collective values has facilitated the establishment of Indigenous Community Institutions that play a significant role in maintaining local social order. These institutions function not only as custodians of customary norms and institutions but also hold a strategic position that can be mobilized as a key resource to support community-based waste management initiatives. Through mechanisms of deliberation, collective action, and value based social monitoring, Indigenous Community Institutions can serve as intermediaries between local communities and external actors, as well as facilitators for the internalization of participatory and sustainable environmental management practices grounded in local values.
2. Bridging social capital
Social relations between local communities and migrant groups on Banda Neira Island have become increasingly dynamic alongside the growth of tourism activities. The presence of migrants who have settled on the island has fostered cross-group social interactions, giving rise to forms of bridging social capital that are evident in interactions among groups with diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds. In the context of waste management on small islands such as Banda Neira, bridging social capital plays a strategic role in facilitating cooperation among social groups with differing backgrounds, including indigenous residents of Banda Neira, customary communities, migrants, tourism related business actors, educational communities, and NGOs. The existence of these cross-group relationships enables the formation of more inclusive collaborative networks, which can enhance coordination across various stages of waste management, including collection, sorting, and processing. For instance, the involvement of students from outside Banda Neira and environmental NGOs in educational programs or waste bank initiatives, when synergistically integrated with local community efforts, can expand access to information, resources, and innovation in waste governance within small island settings characterized by infrastructural constraints.
Consistent with the characteristics of island communities that are highly dependent on natural resources, vulnerable to climate change, and confronted with pollution and waste management challenges, the Banda Neira community also demonstrates self-reliance, adaptive innovation, and collective action in responding to environmental crises.²¹ These practices are reflected in the cross-group support mechanisms identified under bridging social capital, encompassing indigenous residents, customary institutions, migrants, tourism entrepreneurs, educational communities, and NGOs, which together form more inclusive and resilient collaborative networks.
3. Social capital linking
Linking social capital on Banda Neira Island is reflected in the relationships between indigenous residents and external actors such as NGOs, Academics, and donor institutions, particularly in marine conservation initiatives and sustainable tourism development programs. These relationships indicate the presence of vertical linkages that enable access to external resources, knowledge, and technical or financial support. However, in the context of waste management, the presence of linking social capital remains limited. This assessment is based on the lack of consistent responses and interventions from local government authorities, particularly in addressing fundamental issues such as land tenure conflicts related to the establishment of a final disposal site. This condition reflects insufficient functional connectivity between local communities and higher level institutions, including local government agencies and external partners. When such vertical relationships do not operate effectively, community capacity to access legal assistance, mediation facilitation, or policy support becomes constrained. The absence of an active role by external actors in mediating between land owning community members and broader public interests further indicates that channels of communication and collaboration have not been adequately institutionalized. Moreover, community reliance on externally driven project based initiatives, such as those implemented by NGOs, has not been accompanied by sustained support from local formal institutions. This lack of continuity suggests weaknesses in local institutional capacity to adopt, institutionalize, and sustain initiatives originally introduced by external actors.

In line with the identification of social capital described above, island communities generally have a high level of social connectivity, which is reflected in the close relationships between members of the island community, solidarity, and mutual trust that support collective action.²² This condition is also evident in the social relationships of the Banda Island community, which form an important foundation for sustainable livelihoods. Connectivity among the Banda Island community serves as a bridge to expand collective capacity, including in waste management strategies that utilise the synergy of these three forms of social capital. Social capital is not just an abstract concept, but a real practice that supports the sustainability of life for communities on small islands, such as Banda Neira Island.

Social capital on Banda Neira Island is closely linked to the concept of human capital, which constitutes a crucial pillar supporting the resilience and sustainability of island livelihoods. Human capital refers to the collection of skills, both local and modern knowledge, and access to adequate basic services such as health care and education. As highlighted in a study on Tiga Island, the integration of social and human capital enables island communities to adapt to various ecological and economic pressures.²³ In the context of waste management on small islands, the integration of social and human capital on Banda Neira Island has the potential to be a determining factor in the success of collective efforts to maintain environmental cleanliness. Social capital, in the form of trust networks, norms of mutual cooperation, and community solidarity, provides a foundation for raising shared awareness, mobilizing community participation, and organizing regular communal clean-up activities or community based waste bank initiatives. Meanwhile, human capital strengthens community capacity in waste management through technical skills, knowledge of waste separation, recycling, and the implementation of household waste reduction practices. Adequate access to education and environmental information enables residents to understand the impacts of waste on the socio economic conditions of Banda Neira Island.

Other related studies also provide valuable insights into the role of endogenous and exogenous capacities in island development.²⁴ Endogenous capacity refers to the community’s own abilities, including skills, knowledge, and social capital (bonding, bridging, and linking), which enable the Banda Island community to manage waste despite limited infrastructure. Exogenous capacity, on the other hand, refers to support from external actors, such as government agencies, NGOs, or other stakeholders (linking), providing resources, policy guidance, or technology. These two capacities complement each other: the internal strengths of the community combined with external support enhance waste management effectiveness on small islands like Banda Neira, in ways that are appropriate to the island’s conditions and cultural identity.

Therefore, understanding social capital and its related entities provides an essential foundation for formulating waste management strategies on Banda Neira Island. This approach ensures that any waste management initiatives are aligned with local values of togetherness, mutual cooperation, and the existing social norms of the community. Consequently, the strategies implemented can be sustainable, supported by active community participation, and tailored to the social characteristics of the island community.

2.4. Potential synergy between governance and social capital

Banda Neira Island, as a small island, faces complex challenges in waste management due to limited infrastructure, weak inter-agency coordination, and minimal integrated policy interventions. Amid these constraints, the local community possesses strong social capital in the form of cohesive traditional community bonds, cross-group social integration, and networks with external actors. The potential synergy between social capital and governance represents a strategic leverage point in advancing waste management efforts. Based on the analyzed governance dynamics and identified social capital, several intersections can be observed between community social strengths and the institutional structures of waste management:

1. Bonding
Social cohesion within the traditional community serves as a valuable asset in fostering collective awareness of environmental management. Practices such as mutual cooperation and deliberation can form the foundation of informal institutions supporting waste collection, monitoring, as well as environmental education and campaigns. This form of social capital represents a strategic basis for managerial innovations aimed at strengthening environmental governance, particularly in small island waste management. Deeply ingrained in the lives of the local community, these practices of mutual cooperation and deliberation not only reflect social solidarity but also constitute effective informal institutions for building collective awareness. Within the framework of managerial innovation,⁴ this social cohesion can be operationalized concretely through four main pillars:
- a. Preparation and education
  The tradition of deliberation can be utilized as a platform for disseminating information and environmental education, whether through traditional forums, community meetings, or village-based pilot projects. Early education on the importance of cleanliness and waste management can be instilled within families and traditional institutions as part of societal values.
- b. Strengthening government roles
  Local governments need to position themselves as Facilitators capable of building trust and emotional closeness with the community, particularly through bonding social capital approaches that emphasize solidarity within the community. Active community involvement in waste management can be enhanced by ensuring their representation in deliberation and decision-making processes, so that local aspirations and needs are genuinely accommodated. Moreover, the government can act as an effective Mediator in resolving internal issues, such as conflicts over landfill ownership, by promoting dialogue based on familial values and a strong sense of community belonging. This approach not only strengthens policy legitimacy but also fosters commitment to sustainable waste management.
- c. Institutionalization & funding
  Routine mutual cooperation activities, such as collective clean-ups or coastal waste collection on Banda Neira Island, can be institutionalized through a jointly agreed waste collection schedule, as already practiced by many local environmental advocates. Incorporating these activities into a Community Action Plan would formalize them further. At the same time, collective contributions or the use of local grants can be developed through traditional institutional structures. Even informal sectors, such as scavengers or waste collectors, can be socially formalized by the community through customary recognition and their involvement in joint waste management schemes.
- d. Human resource development
  Strong social capital provides significant opportunities to develop community based training programs in areas such as organic waste management, composting, and recycling. Empowering community members as local waste managers, environmental education facilitators, or creators of waste based enterprises can strengthen the capacity of implementers.
Thus, social cohesion is not only a cultural asset but can also be strategically articulated within a managerial innovation framework to create participatory waste governance that aligns with local values.
2. Bridging
Interactions between the indigenous community of Banda Neira Island and incoming residents as well as tourism actors create the potential for bridging social capital, which serves as a social bridge connecting different groups through shared interests. Cross-community relationships can be developed into mutually beneficial collaborative forums, particularly in economically empowered waste management initiatives. Such initiatives can be strengthened through a combination of three forms of innovation, as follows:
- a. Administrative innovation
  Create an innovation is needed to establish regulatory and institutional support, for example through regulations prohibiting single use plastics in tourism areas, strengthening legal mandates for recycling, and forming public private partnerships in environmental awareness campaigns. In addition, collaboration with academic institutions can open opportunities for research and funding support, further legitimizing community based programs.
- b. Technical innovation
  Technical innovation can further enhance the practice of transforming waste into valuable products, which can then be actively marketed to tourists or sold outside Banda Neira Island.
  Thus, bridging social capital on Banda Neira Island not only strengthens cross-group social networks but also serves as a strategic foundation for integrating inclusive and sustainable waste management efforts. The island community’s characteristics suggest an inherent capacity to develop and leverage its local resources effectively.
3. Linking
As a small island, Banda Neira faces limitations in financial resources, infrastructure, and technical capacity to manage waste independently. In this context, linking social capital holds significant potential, as it involves building collaborative relationships between local communities and external actors such as NGOs, private institutions, and donor agencies. This synergy can serve as a crucial foundation for implementing technical innovations to enhance waste management effectiveness, such as:
- a. External support
  communities can be facilitated in applying practical technologies and methods, including household level separation of organic and inorganic waste, composting, and the development of recycling facilities aligned with local wisdom. Furthermore, collaboration with external institutions can accelerate the construction and improvement of modern landfill sites, including reclamation efforts and extending the lifespan of existing landfills through technology based approaches.
- b. Technical and logistical support
  Technical and logistical assistance from external partners also enables support for the establishment of 3R (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle) collection points and efficiency improvements in waste transportation chains. Consequently, linking social capital not only broadens networks of external support but also acts as a key driver in integrating adaptive and sustainable technical innovations amid the local resource constraints of Banda Neira Island in waste management.

Small islands are vulnerable and generally retain their distinctive archipelagic characteristics because they are not integrated into large infrastructure networks.² The limitations of large infrastructure on small islands, such as Banda Neira Island, are also a major issue in waste management. This condition indirectly places social capital as a pillar in carrying out governance functions that address waste management issues. The absence of an adequate centralised management system requires the Banda Neira community to develop a waste management mechanism based on strong social networks (bonding), cross-group connections (bridging), and relationships with external parties or authorities (linking), which are important assets for coordinating the collection, processing and distribution of waste in areas with limited access.

In an ontological understanding of archipelagos, which defines islands as entities with a specific existence, identity and meaning for their communities, there is significant relevance in designing waste management systems on small islands. As demonstrated in the Tasmania case study, a contextual and sensitive policy approach to local identity enables the creation of development policies that are more in line with the real needs of island communities.²⁵ On Banda Neira Island, this can be seen in how social capital is utilised as the main driver in overcoming the limitations of formal waste management infrastructure. Trust, solidarity, and networks of cooperation among residents form the foundation of community-based governance, which runs in harmony with local values and the character of the archipelago. Thus, a deep understanding of the meaning of the archipelago not only helps protect the islands from destructive development, but also strengthens participatory, adaptive, and sustainable waste management practices through the strengthening of social capital as the primary social infrastructure.

Based on the results of the analysis, the integration of governance dimensions and social capital (bonding, bridging, and linking) in waste management on Banda Neira Island can be conceptualized as presented in Table 2, providing practical insights for policymakers and practitioners in small island and peripheral coastal regions facing similar ecological and institutional constraints.

Table 2. Integration of governance and social capital in waste management on banda neira island.Governance AspectBondingBridgingLinking Institutions & Regulations Local traditions of mutual cooperation and customary deliberations are institutionalized within the community action plan.Collaboration among local residents, newcomers, and tourists to form cross-group forums and community regulations (e.g., plastic bans).Institutional support from NGOs, academics, or donors to strengthen regulatory frameworks and develop modern landfill facilities using adaptive and technology-based approaches.Education & Awareness Customary deliberations serve as platforms for environmental outreach and early education within families and communities.Involvement of tourism actors and newcomers in joint campaigns on environmental cleanliness and waste management education.Environment focused education programs supported by external partners; technical training and project-based campaigns organized by NGOs, donors, or universities.Local Government Capacity The government acts as a facilitator and mediator, guided by familial values and emotional closeness.The government provides regulatory and policy support in waste management.The government, assisted by external partners, mediates landfill-land conflicts, develops policies, and enhances technical capacity and infrastructure funding for waste management.Funding & Operationalization Collective contributions and agreements for self-managed household waste management.Circular economy-based waste management.Grants, CSR, and donor assistance for funding (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Collection Points), composting facilities, and logistics efficiency (transportation and final processing).Technology & Innovation Use of simple, locally adapted technologies (composting, waste segregation) based on community habits and mutual cooperation.Development of recycled products marketed to tourists; creation of cross-community creative enterprises.Adoption of modern technologies such as integrated waste processing, support for landfill infrastructure, and development of recycling value chains through partnerships with external actors.Capacity Building for Human Resources & Community Training and mentoring of environmental cadres from within the community.Collaboration among environmental activists, local residents, and informal waste workers.Technical training and mentoring provided by external partners (academics, NGOs, donors) for waste management.

4. Conclussion

This study demonstrates that waste management challenges on Banda Neira Island are driven primarily by fragmented governance and weak institutional implementation rather than by technical limitations alone. The key contribution of this research lies in showing that waste governance on small islands can be strengthened through the integration of formal governance arrangements with existing community social capital. By analytically linking bonding, bridging, and linking social capital to governance processes, this study advances small island governance literature by positioning social capital as a structurally embedded element of adaptive environmental governance.

The findings highlight that bonding social capital supports collective action and local legitimacy, bridging social capital enables collaboration across social and economic groups, and linking social capital facilitates access to external resources and institutional support. When aligned with formal governance mechanisms, these forms of social capital can reduce institutional fragmentation and improve waste management outcomes. From a policy perspective, this implies that small island waste management strategies should move beyond infrastructure-centered and top-down approaches toward governance models that institutionalize community participation, strengthen horizontal collaboration, and enhance vertical coordination with external actors. These insights are transferable to other small islands and peripheral coastal regions facing similar environmental pressures and governance constraints, particularly in tourism-oriented contexts.

This study is limited by its qualitative, single-case design, which restricts broader generalization. Future research could employ comparative multi-island studies, mixed-method approaches, or longitudinal designs to further examine how different configurations of social capital interact with governance structures over time. Such studies would strengthen understanding of scalable and context-sensitive waste management strategies for small island environments.

Ethical considerations

This study employed a qualitative approach using semi-structured interviews with two adult participants from Banda Neira Island, Indonesia, namely a community waste management pioneer and a local customary leader. Formal ethical approval or exemption was not obtained prior to the study. At the time the research was conducted, the authors’ institutional affiliation did not require formal ethics committee review for non-interventional qualitative social research involving adult participants and minimal risk. Therefore, no application for ethical approval or exemption was submitted.

Nevertheless, the study was designed and conducted in accordance with internationally recognized ethical principles for research involving human participants, including respect for persons, voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, and minimization of harm. Prior to each interview, participants were informed about the objectives of the study, the intended use of the information provided, the voluntary nature of participation, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequence.

Verbal informed consent was obtained from all participants before the interviews were conducted. Verbal consent was considered appropriate because the study involved minimal risk and consisted of qualitative interviews with adult participants in their professional and community leadership capacities. Consent was documented through audio recordings, which are securely retained by the authors and can be provided upon reasonable request if required, subject to confidentiality and ethical considerations. Appropriate measures were taken to protect participant confidentiality throughout the research process.

Use of artificial intelligence (ai) tools declaration

During the preparation of this work, the authors utilized Google Gemini (Large Language Model) to assist with language editing, structuring, and formatting the manuscript to adhere to journal guidelines. After using this tool/service, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the accuracy and originality of the publication.

Data availability

Underlying data

De-identified interview transcripts supporting the findings of this study have been deposited in the Zenodo repository. Personal identifiers and potentially identifying information have been removed to protect participant confidentiality. Zenodo: Interview Transcripts: Integrating Governance and Social Capital in Solid Waste Management on Banda Neira Island. The dataset is available at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.21195260.²⁶

Data are available under the terms of the Creative Commons Zero "No rights reserved" data waiver (CC0 1.0 Public domain dedication).

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their highest gratitude to the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education (Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan/LPDP) for the financial support provided during this academic journey.

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This publication was supported by the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education Agency (Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan/LPDP). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis the decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

© 2026 Rubianto L et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Integrating Governance and Social Capital in Solid Waste Management on Small Islands: A Case Study of Banda Neira Island, Central Maluku Regency, Maluku Province, Indonesia. [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]

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