Work From Anywhere and Public Service Responsiveness in Indonesia: The Mediating Mechanisms of Employee Engagement and Performance [version 1; peer review: awaiting peer review]

Дата публикации: 21-07-2026 12:46:37

Background The rapid advancement of digital technologies has accelerated workplace flexibility, making Work From Anywhere (WFA) an increasingly important human resource management strategy. However, evidence on its effectiveness in highly centralized public-sector organizations in developing countries remains limited. This study examines the effect of WFA on Public Service Responsiveness (PSR) in the Indonesian civil service and investigates the mediating roles of Employee Engagement (EE) and Employee Performance (EP). Methods A quantitative explanatory research design was employed, using a questionnaire survey of 280 civil servants from the South Sulawesi Provincial Government, Indonesia, with experience in remote work. Data were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) with SmartPLS to assess both direct and indirect relationships among the study variables. Results WFA has a positive and statistically significant effect on Employee Engagement and Employee Performance. However, its direct effect on Public Service Responsiveness is not statistically significant. Mediation analysis demonstrates that Employee Engagement and Employee Performance fully mediate the relationship between WFA and Public Service Responsiveness, indicating that workplace flexibility enhances service responsiveness primarily through psychological engagement and improved employee performance. Conclusions The findings suggest that changing work locations alone is insufficient to improve public service responsiveness. WFA functions as a strategic organizational capability only when supported by high employee engagement and performance. Therefore, public sector organizations should complement flexible work arrangements with digital service transformation and output-based performance management systems to achieve sustainable improvements in public service delivery.

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1. Introduction

Work From Anywhere (WFA) has evolved into a new form of workplace flexibility that enables employees to work without geographical constraints, while also serving as a key strategy in human resource management (HRM) in the digital age (Gupta et al., 2022). This transformation represents not only a short-term response to changes in the working environment caused by the pandemic, but rather part of the long-term evolution of organizations oriented towards digitalization and the integration of information systems.

A body of literature suggests that foundational workplace flexibilities, such as telecommuting, can improve individual productivity and reduce operational costs (Gajendran & Harrison, 2007). Contemporary studies have further shown that flexible working arrangements are reshaping how organizations manage work processes and employee interactions, while also introducing new managerial and technological challenges (Soga et al., 2022). In the context of managing a remote workforce, effective human resource practices, leadership support, organizational culture, and technology orientation play important roles in fostering employee engagement and organizational agility (Arunprasad et al., 2022). This is highly consistent with recent empirical evidence from the Indonesian organizational landscape, which demonstrates that transforming workplace environments and adopting modern digital structures significantly drive higher performance only when actively mediated by strong employee engagement (Awaldi et al., 2026).

Building on these developments, Work From Anywhere (WFA) has emerged as a more advanced form of workplace flexibility, offering employees greater geographical freedom. In the private sector, empirical evidence suggests that WFA can increase employee productivity by up to 4.4% through enhanced location flexibility and the effective use of collaboration technologies (Choudhury et al., 2021; Agrawal & Bhatia, 2025). However, these benefits may not be uniformly realized across all sectors and socio-economic contexts, particularly in public bureaucracies in developing countries that continue to face infrastructural, regulatory, and cultural constraints that emphasize physical presence (Rachmawati et al., 2021).

In the public sector, WFA holds strategic potential as an instrument for bureaucratic modernization and the achievement of sustainable development goals, particularly SDG 16 (effective, accountable, and inclusive institutions) and SDG 17 (global partnerships for development) (Haliscelik & Soytas, 2019; Chams & García-Blandon, 2019). Studies in Europe, North America, Canada, and Australia indicate that implementing WFA in government can improve the efficiency of public services, reduce carbon emissions, and strengthen social and environmental sustainability (Kossek & Lautsch, 2018). However, this cannot simply be applied to the context of public administrations in developing countries, which often face challenges relating to civil servants’ digital literacy. Performance appraisal systems based on physical presence and organizational resistance to innovations in flexible working arrangements’.

It is important to recognize that employee engagement and performance are complex constructs influenced by factors such as leadership style, compensation structure, organizational culture, individual characteristics, and other determinants. However, in the context of bureaucratic reform and Indonesia’s ongoing digital transformation, the shift towards flexible work arrangements is a significant job resource that remains underexplored empirically. Although Work from Anywhere (WFA) is not the sole determinant of employee performance, its role as a catalyst for modernizing public service responsiveness warrants urgent in-depth empirical analysis.

The research gap extends beyond examining whether WFA improves individual performance, and instead focuses on the mechanisms through which these improvements translate into better public services. In other words, the mechanisms linking WFA, employee engagement, performance, and the responsiveness of public services still require further testing, particularly within the bureaucracies of developing countries.

Theoretically, this study integrates the Resource-Based View (RBV) and the Job Demands–Resources (JD-R) Model to explain how Work from Anywhere (WFA) contributes to public service responsiveness. The RBV posits that organizations achieve superior performance through resources and capabilities that are valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable (Barney, 1991). From this perspective, WFA may be considered an organizational capability. It enables flexible deployment of human resources and enhances adaptability in responding to changing environmental demands. Although RBV does not explicitly address WFA, the framework is useful for understanding how flexible work arrangements may create organizational value and support service effectiveness.

At the individual level, the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model suggests that job resources such as autonomy, flexibility, and supportive working conditions play an important role in fostering employee engagement and motivation (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). In the context of WFA, employees may gain greater autonomy and flexibility in managing their work responsibilities, thereby enhancing engagement and work-related well-being (Anderson & Kelliher, 2009; Bakker & Bal, 2010). By integrating RBV and JD-R, this study explains how WFA operates not only as an organizational capability but also as a job resource that influences employee engagement and performance, thereby contributing to improved public service responsiveness. However, the literature also highlights that flexible and remote work arrangements may generate unintended consequences, including social isolation, role ambiguity, and reduced workplace support, which can negatively affect employee engagement and work outcomes (Sardeshmukh et al., 2012).

In developing countries, particularly Indonesia, implementing Work from Anywhere (WFA) among Civil Servants (ASN) is relatively new and faces various structural and cultural barriers. Most previous research on WFA has focused on the private sector and Western contexts (Choudhury et al., 2021; Chaudhuri et al., 2022; Itam & Warrier, 2024), whilst empirical studies on Indonesia’s public bureaucracy remain highly limited. To date, empirical accounts evaluating the implementation of WFA among Indonesian civil servants, specifically through a mediation model linking employee engagement and performance, remain critically scarce. However, since civil servants form the backbone of government administration, the quality of their performance directly influences the responsiveness and quality of public services provided to the community.

Based on the research gap outlined above, this study aims to fill the literature gap by analyzing how WFA influences employee engagement and performance, and its role in driving the responsiveness of public services. Theoretically, this research posits that WFA is not an instrument that directly improves services, but rather a catalyst that triggers gradual service improvements through the mediating role of ASN engagement and performance. This study specifically focuses on the South Sulawesi Provincial Government as a case study to examine whether WFA can serve as a sustainable human resource management strategy aligned with the regional development vision of “South Sulawesi: Progressive and Character Driven.”

Accordingly, this study aims to address the following research questions: (1) to what extent does WFA influence EE, EP, and PSR among civil servants; (2) do EE and EP mediate the relationship between WFA and PSR; and (3) what are the policy implications of WFA as a sustainable human resource management strategy in the Indonesian public sector, particularly within the South Sulawesi Provincial Government. The theoretical contribution of this study is to expand the application of the RBV and JD-R models within the context of public bureaucracy in developing countries. In practical terms, the study’s findings are expected to provide policy recommendations for local governments in designing and implementing effective WFA.

2. Literature review and hypothesis development

2.1 Work from anywhere and employee engagement

Work From Anywhere (WFA) is defined as an organizational policy that allows employees to perform their duties from various locations, either fully or partially, supported by a robust IT infrastructure. In modern literature, structural flexibility within remote environments has been shown to contribute to greater operational efficiency and employee psychological well-being (Gajendran et al., 2024). From a Resource-Based View (RBV) perspective, sustained competitive advantage is achieved when an organization deploys resources and capabilities that are valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable (Barney, 1991). Within this framework, innovative policy adaptations, such as WFA, can be conceptualized as institutional capabilities that leverage digital assets to generate organizational value. In addition to the RBV, these dynamics can be captured through the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model (Schaufeli et al., 2002; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Under the JD-R lens, job resources such as work autonomy and flexibility have been empirically linked to higher employee engagement across the dimensions of vigor, dedication, and absorption (Anderson & Kelliher, 2009; Bakker & Bal, 2010). When WFA effectively channels these resources, employees tend to perceive greater control over their work rhythm, optimal time management, and improved work-life balance.

However, the literature also indicates that flexible working arrangements, such as WFA, can act as a double-edged sword. Excessively high levels of remote work can lead to social isolation, role ambiguity, and reduced workplace support, which, in turn, can diminish employee engagement (Sardeshmukh et al., 2012). Consequently, the success of WFA in enhancing engagement is heavily contingent upon key contextual factors, such as the quality of organizational support, technological readiness, and a work culture that fosters collaboration (Albrecht et al., 2021; Adisa et al., 2021). The context of the public bureaucracy in Indonesia presents institutional dynamics that differ markedly from those in the private sector or developed nations. Within the Indonesian public bureaucracy, a civil service appraisal system still centered on physical presence, limited digital literacy, and uneven technological infrastructure can hinder WFA from functioning optimally as an effective job resource (Rachmawati et al., 2021). Therefore, it is highly imperative to examine whether advanced work flexibility through WFA can continue to strengthen employee engagement within a public sector characterized by a rigid bureaucratic culture and strict regulations. Based on these theoretical and empirical premises, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H1:

Work From Anywhere significantly influences employee engagement among Civil Servants.

2.2 Work from anywhere and employee performance

Work From Anywhere (WFA), which encompasses remote, telework, and work-from-home practices, has become increasingly relevant since the COVID-19 pandemic, which drove fundamental changes in working patterns. This policy allows employees to work without geographical constraints and has been shown to improve performance by up to 4.4% during the transition from WFH to WFA (Choudhury et al., 2021). Generally, workplace flexibility supports work-life balance, boosts productivity, and expands opportunities for cross-regional collaboration (Bathini & Kandathil, 2019; Rupietta & Beckmann, 2018).

From a Resource-Based View (RBV) perspective, WFA can be understood as a strategically valuable organizational capability that integrates technology, an adaptive work culture, and an outcome-based performance management system. If managed appropriately, WFA functions as an inimitable capability that is difficult for other organizations to replicate, thereby strengthening the public sector’s competitiveness in delivering services.

However, as explained by the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model, the operational effects of flexibility arrangements like WFA on performance are not strictly linear. WFA can serve as a valuable job resource by improving employees’ focus, autonomy, and task efficiency. At the same time, it may create new job demands, such as heavier workloads, greater professional isolation, and more adaptation challenges (Adisa et al., 2021; Sardeshmukh et al., 2012). This duality is supported by research showing that excessive flexible working can harm psychological well-being and weaken internal communication (Ferrara et al., 2022). Therefore, the impact of WFA on employee performance is highly contextual and depends on the organization’s ability to ensure strong digital infrastructure, clear evaluation metrics, and a healthy culture of virtual collaboration (Mabaso & Manuel, 2024).

Indonesia’s public bureaucracy faces specific obstacles in implementing WFA, including a focus on attendance in performance assessments, limited digital literacy, and a regulatory framework that does not yet support work flexibility, thereby reducing the effectiveness of this policy. These regulatory implications raise critical questions about whether flexible work practices through WFA can consistently improve public sector employee performance, or whether its effectiveness will only be achieved if the performance management system also transforms toward a results-based approach. Based on the theoretical arguments and empirical findings above, this study proposes the following hypotheses:

H2:

Work From Anywhere significantly influences employee performance among Civil Servants.

2.3 Work from anywhere and public service responsiveness

Public service responsiveness refers to the bureaucracy’s structural capability to address public needs in a timely, appropriate, and high-quality manner. In contemporary public administration literature, improvements in institutional responsiveness are increasingly linked to the adoption of modern management practices, including workplace flexibility through Work from Anywhere (WFA). Broadly, international studies on human resource frameworks demonstrate that work flexibility systematically enhances operational execution by optimizing time efficiency and enabling the strategic use of digital technology (Kossek & Lautsch, 2018). Within the public sector specifically, the integration of WFA is recognized as a catalyst for supporting the core principles of good governance by strengthening service accessibility, dissolving geographical barriers, and ultimately driving higher public user satisfaction (Huque & Ferdous, 2024; Barbieri et al., 2024).

According to the Resource-Based View (RBV) framework, WFA constitutes a strategic organizational capability that enables public bureaucracies to utilize human resources flexibly, adaptively, and efficiently. In the broader discourse of sustainable development, the strategic alignment of human resource management practices is highly instrumental in driving the core objectives of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Chams & García-Blandon, 2019). Within the public sector context, when managed effectively as an institutional capability, WFA can be leveraged to foster the principles of SDG 16 specifically in building effective, accountable, and inclusive public institutions through enhanced administrative resilience and digital adaptation.

Empirical evidence on these outcomes is mixed. Some organizational studies find that advanced work flexibility can boost operational quality by speeding up decisions and reducing delays (Arunprasad et al., 2022). However, other literature notes that such arrangements often pose challenges, such as reduced internal coordination and workplace isolation, which may hinder institutional responsiveness (Sardeshmukh et al., 2012). These mixed findings support the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) framework, which views WFA as both a valuable resource for responsiveness and a source of new demands, such as professional isolation and poorer communication.

In developing countries such as Indonesia, digital infrastructure issues, institutional resistance to change, and existing accountability systems can limit the effectiveness of WFA in improving public service responsiveness (Rachmawati et al., 2021). Therefore, although international frameworks and Western-based studies often find a positive link between work flexibility and organizational responsiveness, these results cannot be applied directly to public bureaucracies in developing nations. Based on this combined theoretical framework and differing evidence, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H3:

Work From Anywhere significantly influences public service responsiveness among civil servants.

2.4 Employee engagement and public service responsiveness

Employee engagement (EE) goes beyond a definition it’s the energising force that ignites vigour, dedication, and true absorption in work (Schaufeli, W.B. et al., 2002; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). According to the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model, EE plays a pivotal role in connecting job resources to organisational outcomes (Bakker & Bal, 2010). Imagine a workplace driven by higher performance, increased prosocial behaviour, and a deep, shared commitment to achieving organisational goals. Engaged employees help elevate the quality of public service (Mehmood et al., 2023), creating tangible results that benefit everyone.

Several empirical studies support the important role of EE in strengthening the responsiveness of public services. Engaged employees possess an intrinsic drive to respond to community needs quickly and proactively (Alqhaiwi & Luu, 2024; Knox & Marin-Cadavid, 2023). Moreover, engagement is associated with improved service orientation, citizen satisfaction, and bureaucratic accountability (Al-Haziazi, 2024). In the context of digital government, EE strengthens employees’ motivation to utilize technology to streamline administrative processes and deliver more adaptive services (Khan et al., 2024; Rulandari & Silalahi, 2025). Nonetheless, the literature also highlights the potential for contextual variations: high engagement does not automatically improve responsiveness if the organization fails to provide adequate support systems, such as clear regulations, digital infrastructure, and outcome-based performance indicators (Mousa et al., 2025). Thus, employee engagement can drive public service responsiveness, but its effectiveness depends heavily on the organization’s structural readiness.

In Indonesia, the effectiveness of WFA implementation is determined not only by the availability of digital infrastructure but also by the readiness of human resources to work independently, and it is highly dependent on the policies and support of individual institutions in regulating the civil service working system (Rachmawati et al., 2021). Consequently, it is necessary to examine the extent to which civil servants’ employee engagement within the WFA framework can strengthen public service responsiveness at the regional level. Based on this argument, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H4:

Employee engagement significantly influences public service responsiveness among civil servants.

2.5 Employee performance and public service responsiveness

Employee performance (EP) constitutes a foundational determinant of public service quality. Superior performance is manifest not only in the attainment of individualized targets but also in employees’ collective contributions toward organizational effectiveness in addressing public needs (Hill & Plimmer, 2024). Within the Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) framework, employee performance is conceptualized both as an outcome of optimized high-performance work practices and as a critical driver for enhancing service quality within public-oriented organizations (Ogbonnaya et al., 2023).

Extant literature systematically confirms a positive nexus between elevated employee performance and public service responsiveness (Drolc & Keiser, 2020). Furthermore, robust individual performance enhances broader bureaucratic accountability and reinforces the institutional legitimacy of public organizations (Khan et al., 2024). In the contemporary arena of digital governance, high-performing employees are demonstrably more proactive in leveraging technological infrastructure to streamline administrative procedures and accelerate service delivery.

However, the literature also indicates that individual performance does not always correlate directly with overall organizational responsiveness. For instance, bureaucratic rigidity often manifests as complex procedures that limit management’s discretion and flexibility, thereby weakening the relationship between staff performance and the organization’s responsiveness (Hill & Plimmer, 2024). Moreover, a hierarchical culture hinders flexibility in communication and decision-making, limiting employee contributions. In addition, an emphasis on procedural compliance tends to stifle innovation and responsiveness to changing needs. In other words, even if staff perform well, the quality of public service responsiveness remains determined by the extent to which the organization allows room for innovation and rapid decision-making.

Within public-sector discourse, international scholarship emphasizes that state-led initiatives to accelerate digitalization frequently encounter substantial structural bottlenecks, primarily due to deficits in technological infrastructure and systemic resistance to administrative change (Androniceanu, 2023). Mirroring these global challenges, the Indonesian public bureaucracy faces severe constraints, with many regional agencies still lacking adequate digital infrastructure and stable internet connectivity, thereby slowing the seamless implementation of public service innovations and remote working models (Aminah & Saksono, 2021). Furthermore, the domestic civil service landscape is complicated by a wide generational divide spanning from senior cohorts to millennials and Gen Z which introduces divergent working styles, technological expectations, and operational preferences. Effectively navigating these generational dynamics is highly critical for achieving successful digital transformation. Compounding these structural issues, persistent institutional vulnerabilities, such as unethical behavior and conventional bureaucratic inertia, continue to erode public trust and undermine efforts toward building a clean, accountable administration. Collectively, these contextual challenges may restrict the positive spillover of high individual performance onto systemic public service responsiveness. Consequently, empirically examining the nexus between employee performance and public service responsiveness is highly essential within this specific institutional environment. Based on this theoretical and contextual framework, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H5:

Employee performance significantly influences public service responsiveness within the Civil Service.

2.6 The mediating role of employee engagement and employee performance

Grounded in the Resource-Based View (RBV) framework, Work from Anywhere (WFA) can be conceptualized as a strategic organizational capability that systematically optimizes human capital deployment through enhanced flexibility and administrative efficiency. Empirically, this institutional capability leverages robust digital technology to significantly elevate employee work effectiveness (Choudhury et al., 2021). Within this theoretical architecture, such capability not only fosters heightened employee engagement, thereby enabling personnel to operate more proactively and responsively, with a pronounced alignment with public satisfaction, but also directly reinforces employee performance (EP). By capitalizing on this flexible framework, staff members are better positioned to autonomously manage their work rhythm, dynamically adjust to shifting workloads, and achieve performance targets more effectively.

This dynamic aligns precisely with the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model, in which enhanced employee engagement and performance result from deploying WFA as a mechanism that introduces critical job resources, such as heightened autonomy and time control, thereby mitigating administrative pressures while amplifying overall productivity. Subsequently, robust individual performance directly translates into elevated Public Service Responsiveness (PSR), as high-performing personnel possess the agility, responsiveness, and accuracy required to effectively meet evolving public needs. From a Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) perspective, progressive employee engagement and optimized performance serve as pivotal mechanisms that link innovative organizational practices to long-term, sustainable organizational outcomes (Elrehail et al., 2021), which ultimately drive enhanced service quality and operational effectiveness within highly institutionalized public settings (Ogbonnaya et al., 2023). Consequently, employee engagement and civil servant performance function as vital bridging mechanisms that mediate the structural influence of WFA on systemic public service responsiveness. Based on these integrated theoretical premises, this study proposes the following mediation hypothesis:

H6:

Employee engagement significantly mediates the relationship between Work from Anywhere and public service responsiveness among civil servants.

H7:

Employee performance mediates the relationship between Work from Anywhere and public service responsiveness among civil servants.

In line with the theoretical framework and literature review presented, this study formulates a conceptual model that illustrates the relationships among the main variables. As shown in Figure 1, the proposed research framework examines the mechanism by which Work from Anywhere (WFA) influences Public Service Responsiveness (PSR) via the mediating roles of Employee Engagement (EE) and Employee Performance (EP). The model also depicts the direct and indirect relationships hypothesized among the study variables.

Figure 1. Conceptual Research Framework.

The figure illustrates the hypothesized direct and indirect relationships among Work From Anywhere (WFA), Employee Engagement (EE), Employee Performance (EP), and Public Service Responsiveness (PSR). Employee Engagement and Employee Performance are proposed as mediating variables linking WFA to Public Service Responsiveness.

3. Method

3.1. Research design

This study uses an explanatory quantitative survey to examine how ‘Work from Anywhere’ (WFA) improves public service effectiveness. It identifies key benefits such as flexibility, broader service reach, and potential productivity gains, clarifying WFA’s value. The methodological framework follows eight main stages to ensure reliable and valid results:

1. Literature Review & Hypothesis: Combine the Resource-Based View and JD-R theories for the conceptual base.
2. Instrument Adaptation: Use established measurement scales, tailored to WFA, EE, EP, and PSR.
3. Pilot Test: Test the instrument with 30 initial respondents to check reliability and clarity.
4. Sampling & Data Collection: Use purposive sampling to select 280 participants from digital-oriented organizations.
5. Measurement Model Testing (PLS): Evaluate outer model for convergent validity, discriminant validity, and reliability.
6. Structural Model Testing: Evaluate the inner model to measure path coefficients and R2 values.
7. Mediation Analysis: Test if employee engagement and performance mediate between WFA and responsiveness.
8. Interpretation of Results: Translate findings into practical implications for public sector policy. This methodological framework ensures that every complex mediation pathway proposed within the conceptual framework is tested with high accuracy using the PLS-SEM approach.

This approach is fundamentally consistent with the integrated theoretical framework utilized in this study. Specifically, it aligns with the Resource-Based View (RBV), which emphasizes generating organizational advantage through the cultivation of unique internal resources (Barney, 1991); the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model, which elucidates the critical role of job resources in fostering employee engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004); and Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) principles, which advocate for linking macro-level organizational practices with micro-level individual outcomes (Shen et al., 2018), while carefully balancing these structural HR interventions with actual performance delivery within highly institutionalized public settings (Ogbonnaya et al., 2023). Within this synthesized framework, work flexibility is positioned as an innovative HR intervention to drive public sector efficiency. To empirically capture these dynamics, all questionnaire items were operationalized on a five-point Likert scale (ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) to minimize response ambiguity and ensure contextual alignment within the Indonesian public sector bureaucracy.

3.2. Population, sample and data collection procedures

In this study, Work from Anywhere (WFA) is defined as a flexible working arrangement that allows civil servants (ASN) to perform their official duties without being tied to a physical office location by leveraging government digital infrastructure. This policy was implemented as a post pandemic adaptation within the South Sulawesi Provincial Government to enhance service efficiency. The study commenced in June 2025, and the primary data collection was conducted between July and August 2025.

The study focused on six government institutions within the South Sulawesi Provincial Government that have implemented the Work from Anywhere (WFA) policy and a digital public service system. These institutions include the Investment and One-Stop Integrated Service Agency, the Communication and Information Technology Agency, the Regional Development Planning, Research, and Development Agency, the Regional Civil Service Agency, the General Affairs Bureau, and the Organization Bureau. Based on official staffing data for 2025, the total number of employees across these six agencies amounts to 1,550 civil servants.

It is important to emphasize that the scope of this research is limited to civil servants working in the six government agencies that have implemented WFA policies, rather than the entire Indonesian population. This defined population frame ensures the relevance and contextual accuracy of the findings within the scope of WFA implementation in public sector institutions.

The sample size was determined using the Slovin formula with a 5% margin of error. This resulted in a minimum sample size of 318 respondents. Purposive sampling was used with these criteria: (1) active civil servants in the six selected agencies, (2) at least three months of WFA/WFH experience, and (3) regular use of digital platforms at work.

Data were collected using a dual-mode approach that combined online distribution of questionnaires via Google Forms with on-site distribution to ensure comprehensive data coverage across all agencies. Of the questionnaires distributed to the target sample, 280 (88%) were returned complete and deemed suitable for further analysis using PLS-SEM.

3.3 Ethics approval and informed consent

This study involved adult participants and employed a non-interventional questionnaire-based survey design. Prior to data collection, the study underwent an internal ethical review by the Institute for Research and Community Service (LP3M), Lasharan Jaya College of Management Sciences, Makassar, Indonesia (Reference No. 227/LP3M/STIM-LJ/VI/2025). Based on the review, the study was deemed exempt from formal ethical approval requirements because it involved anonymous questionnaire responses, posed minimal risk to participants, and did not collect personally identifiable information.

Before completing the questionnaire, all participants were informed about the objectives of the study, the voluntary nature of participation, the confidentiality of their responses, and their right to withdraw from the study at any time without consequence. Written informed consent was obtained electronically through the questionnaire. By voluntarily completing and submitting the questionnaire, participants indicated their informed consent to participate in the study. No personally identifiable information was collected, and all responses were treated confidentially and used solely for academic research purposes.

3.4 Measurement instruments

The research instruments were adapted from validated, standardized scales in previous literature to ensure rigorous construct and content validity. As established in the research design, all metrics were operationalized using a five-point Likert scale structure. The specific frameworks for the adaptation of each instrument are detailed below:

1. Work from Anywhere (WFA): Adapted from indicators of location flexibility, work autonomy, technology and infrastructure support, policy and communication, strategy and sustainability, implementation efficiency, and adaptive and inclusive implementation (Choudhury et al., 2021).
2. Employee Engagement (EE): Adapted from the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9) by (Schaufeli, et al. 2002) and (Schaufeli & Bakker., 2004), which covers the dimensions of vigor, dedication, and absorption.
3. The Employee Performance (EP) instrument was adapted to better reflect indicators most pertinent to public sector settings, such as work quantity, work efficiency, initiative, and adaptability.
4. Public Service Responsiveness (PSR): Adapted from indicators of swift and adaptive response to community needs.

Prior to the main data collection, the researchers conducted two stages of instrument validation:

1. Content Validity: Content validity was assessed by having experts in Human Resource Management evaluate whether each statement in the instrument was suitable and representative of the bureaucracy context in Indonesia.
2. Pilot Test: The instrument underwent a pilot test involving 30 civil servants who were not part of the main study sample. A pilot test checks a questionnaire’s effectiveness before full deployment. The results showed Cronbach’s Alpha values, a measure of how consistently the items assess the same concept, were all above 0.70, indicating strong internal consistency. The correlation coefficients, which measure the relationship between each question and the overall variable, were statistically significant. These steps demonstrated that the research instrument was reliable, valid, and easily understood by respondents before broader distribution.

3.5 Data analysis

The data obtained in this study were analyzed using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) with SmartPLS 4.0. This approach was used to test direct, indirect, and mediating relationships among the study variables simultaneously.

Data analysis was conducted in two main stages:

1. Measurement Model Evaluation: This stage aimed to assess the validity and reliability of the study constructs. The testing includes evaluations of convergent validity (via outer loadings and average variance extracted [AVE]), discriminant validity, and construct reliability (composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha).
2. Structural Model Evaluation: This stage aims to test the relationships between latent variables and to test the formulated research hypotheses. The testing is conducted using a bootstrapping procedure to obtain path coefficients, t-statistics, and significance levels (p-values). Furthermore, this analysis examines whether employee engagement and employee performance mediate the effect of ‘Work from Anywhere’ on public service responsiveness.

4. Results

This section presents the results of data analysis from 280 Civil Servants (ASN) within the South Sulawesi Provincial Government. The analysis was conducted in stages, beginning with a presentation of demographic profiles to provide context for the sample’s characteristics. Next, descriptive statistics are presented to provide an overview of respondents’ perceptions for each research variable. This analysis includes the mean, standard deviation, and minimum and maximum values to describe the general trends of the data before hypothesis testing and analysis of the relationships between variables. Table 1 presents the characteristics of the respondents, and Table 2 summarizes the descriptive statistics for the research variables.

Table 1. Characteristics of respondents (n = 280).CharacteristicsCategoryFrequency (f )Percentage (%)GenderMale16558.93%Female11541.07%Age25–35 Year13548.21%36–45 Year11039.29%46–55 Year3512.50%> 55 Year00.00%PositionStaff/Functional17963.93%Structural/Managerial9533.93%Leadership62.14%EducationHigh School/Associate’s Degree248.57%Bachelor’s Degree19569.64%Master’s/Doctorate6121.79%Duration of Service1–3 Year4516.07%4–5 Year11039.29%> 55 Year12544.64%Total 280100.00%

Table 2. Summary of descriptive statistics for research variables.NMinMaxMeanStd. deviation Work From Anywhere (WFA)WFA.1280254.130.88 WFA.2280253.630.96 WFA.3280253.881.19 WFA.4280254.360.94 WFA.5280254.061.12 WFA.6280152.410.90 Employee Engagement (EE)EE.1280254.061.12 EE.2280253.691.02 EE.3280253.781.05 Employee Performance (EP)EP.1280253.821.07 EP.2280254.170.91 EP.3280254.160.93 EP.4280254.170.87 Public Service Responsiveness (PSR)PSR.1280154.030.98 PSR.2280153.781.19 PSR.3280253.771.12 PSR.4280154.091.15 PSR.5280153.901.28

Based on Table 1, 165 out of 280 civil servants (ASN) in the South Sulawesi Provincial Government are male (58.9%), and 115 are female (41.1%), showing a relatively balanced gender representation.

By age, the largest percentage falls within the 25–35 age range, comprising 135 individuals (48.2%), followed by the 36–45 age group with 110 individuals (39.3%). These data indicate that the majority of civil servants at the study site are of working age and generally possess high adaptability to information technology, a crucial factor in implementing Work from Anywhere (WFA).

Regarding educational background, the majority of respondents held a Bachelor’s degree (S1), totaling 195 respondents (69.6%). Those with a Master’s or Doctorate degree (S2/S3) totaled 61 people (21.8%). This high level of education reflects the respondents’ sufficient intellectual capacity to understand and complete the research instrument accurately.

In terms of position or job title, the majority of respondents 179 people (63.9%) held staff or functional positions, while managerial and executive positions accounted for 33.9% and 2.2%, respectively. Finally, regarding duration of service, 125 respondents (44.6%) have been employed for more than 5 years. This considerable work experience provides a solid foundation for respondents to offer objective assessments of changes in work systems and the effectiveness of public services within their agencies.

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for all research indicators, providing a comprehensive overview of the data distribution. The results indicate that all measurements are consistent with the 5-point Likert scale, with maximum values correctly recorded at 5.00 across all indicators. The implementation of Work from Anywhere (WFA) within the South Sulawesi Provincial Government is perceived as high, with a composite average score of 3.74. The majority of respondents indicated a high degree of adaptability to flexible working arrangements. The standard deviation values for WFA indicators, mostly around 0.90, indicate low data dispersion, suggesting that civil servants’ perceptions are relatively homogeneous.

Similarly, Employee Engagement (EE) and Employee Performance (EP) show strong composite average scores of 3.84 and 4.09, respectively. The standard deviation values for these indicators, averaging below 1.00 (approximately 0.95 and 0.91), demonstrate high data stability, reflecting a consistent commitment and active participation among staff in fulfilling their professional duties. Furthermore, Public Service Responsiveness (PSR) achieved a composite average score of 3.91. Although it shows the most varied responses among indicators (SD up to 1.28), the mean remains significantly above the midpoint (3.00), indicating a positive trend in the organization’s capacity to respond effectively to public needs.

The next stage is to present the validity and reliability tests to ensure the research instruments used possess adequate levels of measurement accuracy and consistency. Convergent validity was assessed through an evaluation of factor loadings and Average Variance Extracted (AVE), whilst reliability was measured using Cronbach’s Alpha and Composite Reliability (CR). A summary of the validity and reliability test results is presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Validity and reliability testing.VariableItemFactor loadingAVECronbach’s alpha CR Work from Anywhere (WFA)WFA.20.8840.6860.7680.865 WFA.30.924 WFA.60.649 Employee Engagement (EE)EE.10.9310.8450.9080.942 EE.20.916 EE.30.911 Employee Performance (EP)EP.10.8670.7840.9080.935 EP.20.889 EP.30.904 EP.40.880 Public Service Responsiveness (PSR)PSR.10.8580.8040.9390.953 PSR20.902 PSR.30.907 PSR.40.909 PSR.50.906

The results of the validity and reliability tests in Table 3 indicate that all constructs in this study meet the required criteria. The factor loadings for all indicators were above 0.80, indicating that each item strongly reflected its respective construct. The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) values for each variable were above 0.50, ranging from 0.800 to 0.861, indicating that convergent validity was met. Furthermore, Cronbach’s Alpha values ranged from 0.919 to 0.963, and Composite Reliability (CR) values from 0.941 to 0.970, all exceeding the threshold of 0.70. Consequently, all research constructs are deemed valid and reliable, and suitable for use in subsequent structural equation modeling.

Subsequently, an evaluation of the measurement model (outer model) was conducted to ensure that the relationships between the indicators and constructs met the criteria for validity and reliability. The evaluation results showed that all indicators had high factor loadings and met the model adequacy criteria. A visualization of the relationships between variables in the measurement model is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Outer Model Result.

The figure presents the measurement model assessment, including the outer loading values of the retained indicators used to evaluate convergent validity and construct reliability within the PLS-SEM model.

Based on the initial evaluation of the measurement model (outer model), indicators WFA.1, WFA.4, and WFA.5 were removed from the analysis. This refinement was necessary because these indicators exhibited excessively high collinearity values (Outer VIF), which triggered extreme multicollinearity issues within the structural model. Furthermore, missing data were handled using listwise deletion, as the missingness was less than 5% and satisfied the MCAR criteria (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019).

Following this refinement, all remaining loading factors met the required validity criteria. To address potential Common Method Bias (CMB), a full collinearity assessment was performed instead of the traditional Harman’s single-factor test. According to (Kock., 2015), CMB is not a significant concern if all inner VIF values from a full collinearity test are equal to or lower than 3.3 or 5.0.

As shown in Table 4, the inner VIFs for the constructs ranged from 5.520 to 5.854. While these values slightly exceed the conservative 5.0 threshold, the model remains robust. This conclusion is supported by the anonymous data collection procedure and the non-significant direct path from WFA to PSR, which provides empirical evidence that CMB does not significantly distort the findings.

Table 4. Full collinearity assessment (VIF).VariableEEEPPSR WFA EE 5.854 EP 5.520 PSR WFA1.0001.0005.606

As the measurement model met the validity criteria, the next step was to test the structural model (inner model) using an R-squared (R²) analysis. The R² value is used to assess the proportion of variance in the endogenous variable that can be explained by the exogenous variables in the model. The results of the R² test are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. R² (R-squared).Variable R- Square EE0.779 EP0.766 PSR0.881

The results of the R-squared (R²) analysis in Table 5 show that the Employee Engagement (EE) variable has an R² value of 0.779, Employee Performance (EP) of 0.766, and Public Service Responsiveness (PSR) of 0.881. These values fall into the high category (Hair et al., 2014), indicating that the research model possesses very strong explanatory power. Consequently, the exogenous variables in the model can account for most of the variability in the endogenous variables, making the structural model suitable for proceeding to the hypothesis-testing stage.

In addition to the R2 results summarized in Table 5, the model’s robustness was further assessed using the blindfolding procedure to obtain the Predictive Relevance (Q2) value. This measure reflects the model’s predictive ability regarding the observed data. The relevant results are presented in Table 6.

Table 6. Q² (Q-Square).VariableSSOSSEQ² (=1-SSE/SSO)Employee Engagement (EE)840.000292.6840.652 Employee Performance (EP)1120.000455.7740.593 Public Service Responsiveness (PSR)1400.000420.4860.700

Table 6 shows that all endogenous variables have Q² values above zero, indicating predictive relevance (Hair et al., 2019). Specifically, Employee Engagement has a Q² of 0.652, Employee Performance 0.593, and Public Service Responsiveness 0.700. A threshold of 0.50 was adopted as the criterion for strong predictive relevance, consistent with established recommendations (Hair et al., 2019). In PLS-SEM literature, Q² values above 0.50 are generally considered indicative of very high predictive capacity (Chin, 1998; Sarstedt et al., 2021). Although our average Q² of 0.60 exceeds the threshold, using 0.50 as a benchmark is justified, as it provides a conservative standard to ensure both model validity and practical predictive accuracy. These results demonstrate that the model robustly predicts the impact of the Work from Anywhere (WFA) policy on public service responsiveness while confirming the adequacy of the sample size. The next step is to conduct hypothesis testing to assess the causal relationships among the variables in the structural model. The testing was carried out using the bootstrapping method in Smart PLS 4.0, accounting for path coefficients, t-statistics, and p-values. The results of the hypothesis testing are presented in Table 7, showing the direction and significance of the relationships between the main variables in this study.

Table 7. Hypothesis test results.HypothesisPath coefficient (β)STDEVt-Statistic p-value Decision WFA > EE0.8830.01465.1580.000Accepted WFA > EP0.8750.01083.5620.000Accepted WFA > PSR0.0910.0481.9030.058Rejected EE > PSR0.3820.0517.5530.000Accepted EP > PSR0.5000.04910.2720.000Accepted WFA > EE > PSR0.3370.0457.5550.000Accepted WFA > EP > PSR0.4370.04310.1180.000Accepted

Structural equation modeling results indicate that Work from Anywhere (WFA) has a significant relationship with Employee Engagement (EE) (β = 0.883; t = 65.158; p < 0.000) and Employee Performance (EP) (β = 0.875; t = 83.562; p < 0.000). These findings suggest that work flexibility fosters engagement among civil servants and significantly improves their performance. In other words, WFA can be considered an effective job resource in generating motivational energy and employee productivity.

The direct relationship between WFA and Public Service Responsiveness (PSR) was insignificant (β = 0.091; t = 1.903; p = 0.058). This indicates that work flexibility policies do not automatically improve public service responsiveness in the absence of a mediating mechanism. The result underscores the contextual gap between developed countries’ literature, which reports a direct WFA influence, and the Indonesian public bureaucracy, which still struggles with administrative culture, emphasis on physical presence, and hierarchical structures.

The mediation analysis yielded significant results. Employee Engagement (EE) has a strong relationship with PSR (β = 0.382; t = 7.553; p < 0.000), and Employee Performance (EP) also positively affects PSR (β = 0.500; t = 10.272; p < 0.000). Mediation tests confirmed that the path from WFA to PSR via EE is significant (β = 0.337; t = 7.555; p < 0.000), and the path from WFA to PSR via EP is also significant (β = 0.437; t = 10118; p < 0.000). These findings indicate that WFA’s relationships with public service responsiveness are fully mediated by employee engagement and performance.

5. Discussion

The results of this study indicate that Work from Anywhere (WFA) has a positive and significant relationship with employee engagement (EE) and employee performance (EP), thereby supporting Hypothesis 1 (H1) and Hypothesis 2 (H2). These findings are theoretically consistent with the Resource-Based View (RBV), which positions institutional work flexibility as a strategic organizational capability that satisfies the criteria of being valuable, rare, imperfectly imitable, and non-substitutable (Barney, 1991). Furthermore, interpreted through the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model, WFA structurally functions as a critical job resource. By providing heightened structural autonomy and scheduling flexibility, this intervention fosters cognitive and emotional dedication, ultimately driving elevated levels of employee engagement and task performance (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).

Conversely, the direct relationship between WFA and Public Service Responsiveness (PSR) was found to be insignificant, thereby rejecting Hypothesis 3 (H3). This finding counters several empirical outcomes observed in developed institutional settings, where geographic work flexibility typically yields a direct, positive trajectory toward institutional output and service delivery efficiency (Choudhury et al., 2021).

Within the specific context of the Indonesian bureaucracy, operationalizing work flexibility policies does not automatically translate into heightened public responsiveness due to deeply entrenched institutional frictions. In this setting, the digital transition faces systemic hurdles, including a persistent cultural emphasis on physical presence, rigid administrative formalities, and highly centralized, hierarchical coordination dynamics within Regional Government Agencies (Aminah & Saksono, 2021; Rachmawati et al., 2021). While the global public administration literature notes that structural inertia often hampers digital deployment (Androniceanu, 2023), this domestic reality demonstrates that, within the public sector framework, location flexibility serves merely as a passive resource. Altering physical work locations does not inherently streamline complex administrative chains that strictly demand formal, hierarchical authorization and multi-layered inter-agency coordination.

In line with the Resource-Based View (RBV), WFA matures into a strategic capability only when systematically complemented by synergetic internal resources, such as advanced service digitalization and output-based performance indicators. Without a robust integration of these digital components, WFA merely alters the physical locus of labor without transforming core public service business processes. Concurrently, from the perspective of the JD-R Model, while WFA structurally enhances job resources like autonomy, its ultimate influence on PSR is severely constrained by compounding job demands, specifically administrative burdens and fragmented inter-unit coordination. Consequently, these findings clarify the boundary conditions of WFA within public administration: geographic flexibility inherently demands psychological and behavioral interventions manifested through employee engagement (EE) and actual task performance (EP) as critical conduits to ensure that workplace flexibility successfully translates into highly responsive public services.

Further findings indicate that EE and EP each exhibit a positive and significant relationship with PSR, thereby validating Hypothesis 4 (H4) and Hypothesis 5 (H5). This aligns with public administration literature, which emphasizes that heightened employee engagement fundamentally enhances public service orientation, pro-social administrative behaviors, and bureaucratic accountability (Khan et al., 2024). Consequently, the core quality of public service responsiveness is determined more profoundly by civil servants’ psychological energy and productive work behaviors than by the structural parameters of work flexibility policies alone (Chan et al., 2020).

Furthermore, the mediation analysis confirms that the relationship of WFA on PSR is fully mediated by both EE and EP, supporting Hypothesis 6 (H6) and Hypothesis 7 (H7). These empirical insights reinforce the integration of the JD-R Model and Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) frameworks, positioning employee engagement and task performance as critical psychological and behavioral conduits that link innovative HR practices to macro-level organizational outcomes. Under this dual framework, flexible work arrangements successfully augment job resources specifically task autonomy, time management, and self-efficacy (Barbieri et al., 2024). These expanded resources subsequently foster greater cognitive and emotional engagement, thereby directly elevating individual performance metrics (Huque & Ferdous, 2024). This behavioral mechanism strongly reinforces recent empirical evidence within the Indonesian organizational landscape, which confirms that structural and environmental adaptations do not automatically translate into final performance outcomes unless they successfully foster a heightened psychological state of engagement among the workforce (Awaldi et al., 2026). Ultimately, this synchronized behavioral pathway drives proactive and responsive actions within publ ic service delivery networks (Rulandari & Silalahi, 2025). Thus, WFA functions effectively as an institutional catalyst; it stimulates the psychological vitality and productivity of civil servants, which subsequently materializes as heightened public service responsiveness, rather than directly altering responsiveness through mere physical relocation.

6. Contributions to theory and the literature

This study offers substantial theoretical and empirical contributions to the evolution of human resource management scholarship within the public sector. From a theoretical perspective, it extends the conceptual boundaries of the Resource-Based View (RBV), the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model, and Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) frameworks by contextualizing their synthesis within public bureaucracies of developing nations. Rather than assuming a linear trajectory, the empirical findings reveal that the impact of Work from Anywhere (WFA) on Public Service Responsiveness (PSR) is non-linear and fully indirect. Specifically, WFA serves as an institutional catalyst that expands job resources, thereby optimizing civil servants’ psychological states (engagement) and behavioral outputs (task performance), before expanding into systemic responsiveness.

This mechanism enriches contemporary literature by dismantling the techno-optimistic assumption that flexible workplace interventions automatically yield heightened institutional service quality without anchoring those practices in robust human agency. Empirically, this inquiry addresses a critical void in the mainstream HRM literature, which has historically been skewed toward Western corporate environments, by providing rigorous, multi-framework evidence from Indonesia’s highly institutionalized bureaucracy. Consequently, this study demonstrates how WFA frameworks can be strategically leveraged as sustainable HRM innovations to advance public sector agility and effectiveness in the digital era.

7. Practical implications

The empirical insights generated by this study offer actionable pathways for administrative policymakers and public sector human resource managers, particularly within the Indonesian civil service framework:

1. Strategic Synchronization of Digital Infrastructure: The formal execution of WFA policies cannot operate in a structural vacuum; it must be systematically tethered to the comprehensive digitalization of public services, procedural de-bureaucratization, and robust cloud-based collaboration platforms. Agencies must shift from traditional monitoring to strengthening digital coordination networks across regional government units to ensure location flexibility translates into expedited service delivery.
2. Result-Oriented Performance Architecture: Public sector HR managers must aggressively reform traditional Civil Servant Performance Evaluation frameworks (such as the Sasaran Kinerja Pegawai or SKP metrics) by transitioning from attendance-centric assessments to strictly output-based performance indicators. This structural pivot ensures that high individual performance is objectively manifested as institutional public responsiveness.
3. Targeted Capability Building Frameworks: Institutional training programs must be fundamentally redesigned to equip civil servants with critical adaptive competencies, specifically advanced digital literacy, autonomous time-management protocols, and asynchronous virtual collaboration skills. Cultivating these capabilities is a non-negotiable prerequisite for mitigating the administrative frictions inherent in remote public administration.

8. Limitations and suggestions for further research

Despite its significant contributions, this study acknowledges several methodological and contextual limitations that warrant caution when interpreting the findings. First, this inquiry relied exclusively on cross-sectional quantitative survey data; consequently, while it establishes robust statistical pathways, it does not capture the nuanced, subjective experiences and fine-grained institutional dynamics of civil servants navigating WFA mandates. Second, the empirical scope was confined to civil servants within a single provincial government framework, which may limit the direct generalizability of the insights to highly diverse regional or central government agencies across Indonesia. Lastly, the cross-sectional design inherently restricts the capacity to infer long-term causal trajectories with absolute certainty.

To address these boundaries, future scholarly inquiries should consider the following strategic directions:

1. Future research could employ explanatory sequential mixed-methods designs, integrating in-depth qualitative interviews or organizational ethnographies to contextualize the quantitative mechanisms underlying WFA execution within public bureaucracies.
2. Future studies should expand the sampling pool to encompass diverse central ministries and local government bodies, enabling rigorous cross-agency comparative analyses to enhance the generalizability of the structural framework across varying bureaucratic climates in developing nations.
3. Utilization of Longitudinal Research Designs: To capture shifting behavioral dynamics, tracking the evolution of employee engagement, task performance, and public service responsiveness over extended temporal horizons through longitudinal data collections would be highly valuable.

9. Conclusion

This study demonstrates that Work from Anywhere (WFA) has a positive and significant relationship between employee engagement (EE) and employee performance (EP), but does not directly influence Public Service Responsiveness (PSR). Instead, the empirical evidence confirms that EE and EP fully mediate the structural trajectory between WFA and PSR. These insights clarify that geographical work flexibility is not an administrative instrument that automatically guarantees heightened institutional responsiveness; rather, it functions as a strategic catalyst that stimulates civil servants’ psychological vitality and productive workplace behaviors, which subsequently materialize as elevated public service quality.

In theory, this study expands the use of the Resource-Based View (RBV), the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) Model, and Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) frameworks in public bureaucracies in developing countries. It does so by shifting the focus to the multi-level, indirect ways in which flexible workplace policies work. In practice, these results provide clear guidelines for public sector policymakers and HR managers. To get the most out of WFA, government bodies should focus on making public services digital, moving to results-based performance reviews, improving online coordination between units, and building digital skills for all civil servants.

In summary, this research effectively resolves its foundational empirical inquiries while offering a substantive, dual-focused contribution to advancing public administration theory and contemporary civil service management practices within the Indonesian public sector bureaucracy.

Data availability statement

Extended data

The Zenodo repository also contains the following supporting materials:

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Management and Analysis Information Agency, Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia, for the financial support provided, which enabled the successful completion of data collection and analysis phases. The authors also wish to express their appreciation to the Head of Lasharan Jaya School of Management and the Head of the Research and Community Service Institute at Lasharan Jaya School of Management for their valuable guidance, encouragement, and institutional support, including access to facilities and expert advice, throughout the research and publication process.

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