¹ Hiroshima University - Higashisenda Campus, Hiroshima, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan
² Haramaya University College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Dire Dawa, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia
³ Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension Studies, University of Zambia School of Agricultural Sciences, Lusaka, Lusaka Province, Zambia

Lawrence Mulenga
Roles: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing

Petros Chavula
Roles: Conceptualization, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing

Mulala Jimaiama
Roles: Formal Analysis, Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing

The conceptual framework for this study explains how global education policies, governance structures, and local contextual realities interact to shape teacher education and professional development in the Global South and Sub-Saharan Africa. The framework positions global policy agendas, international standards, donor influence, global citizenship education, and governance reforms as key external drivers influencing national teacher education systems (Forsberg, 2019; Estellés & Fischman, 2021; Verger, 2021).

These global influences interact with local institutional conditions, including educational leadership, higher education capacity, teacher identities, socio-cultural realities, infrastructure, and resource availability (Brauckmann et al., 2023; Mbithi et al., 2021). The interaction often produces tensions related to accountability, professional autonomy, curriculum relevance, policy implementation, and educational equity (Barkhuizen, 2021).

The framework further identifies professional learning communities, collaborative governance, context-sensitive leadership, and continuous professional development as mediating factors that support effective teacher learning and institutional adaptation (Yin & Zheng, 2018; Kerkhoff & Cloud, 2020). Rural and marginalised educational contexts are also recognised as critical contextual factors influencing teacher development and policy implementation (Li et al., 2020).

The expected outcomes include strengthened teacher professionalism, improved governance and leadership systems, context-responsive teacher education reforms, inclusive professional development, and sustainable educational improvement across the Global South and Sub-Saharan Africa.

This study is anchored in Global Education Policy Theory, Network Governance Theory, Critical Globalisation Theory, and Teacher Professionalism Theory to examine policy, governance, and global–local tensions in teacher education and professional development across the Global South and Sub-Saharan Africa. The framework explains how global educational reforms, governance structures, and professional development agendas interact with local educational realities, institutional capacities, and teacher experiences.

Global Education Policy Theory provides the foundation for understanding how international educational agendas influence teacher education reforms and professional development systems. Forsberg (2019) argues that global education policy is shaped through cooperation, interdependence, and tensions among governments, international organisations, and policy actors. Verger (2021) further explains that globalisation increasingly influences teacher education policy, accountability systems, professional standards, and career development structures. This study draws on the theory to explain how global reform agendas, such as competency-based education, accountability measures, and professional standards, shape national teacher education policies in Sub-Saharan Africa and other Global South contexts.

The study also draws on Network Governance Theory to explain how interconnected actors shape teacher education systems. Arnold (2021) emphasises that teacher education reforms are increasingly governed through networks that include governments, universities, donor agencies, schools, and international institutions. These governance networks influence policy implementation, funding priorities, curriculum reforms, and teacher professional development practices. In the context of this study, the theory helps explain how external donors, ministries of education, higher education institutions, and schools collectively shape teacher education reforms while also producing tensions between centralised policies and local implementation realities.

Critical Globalisation Theory further informs the study by examining the tensions between global educational models and localised educational contexts. Kennedy (2024) argues that global teacher education reforms often generate tensions when universal policy frameworks are transferred into contexts with different socio-cultural, political, and institutional realities. Paine (2019) similarly notes that dominant global narratives in teacher education can marginalise local voices, indigenous knowledge systems, and context-sensitive pedagogies. This perspective is central to the study because it explains how globally driven reforms may conflict with local educational priorities, resource conditions, and cultural practices within Sub-Saharan Africa and the broader Global South.

The framework also draws on Teacher Professionalism and Professional Identity Theory to explain how teachers experience and negotiate policy reforms. Goodwin (2021) highlights that globalization and professional standards often create tensions between accountability, autonomy, and teacher professionalism. Ben-Peretz and Flores (2018) further argue that teachers face paradoxes and competing expectations as they respond to policy demands, institutional pressures, and classroom realities. Tran and Nghia (2020), using Bourdieu’s concepts of field and habitus, demonstrate that professional development is shaped by institutional cultures, leadership structures, and social environments. These perspectives are relevant to the study because they help explain how teachers in the Global South navigate professional identities within changing governance and policy environments.

The study also integrates perspectives on collaborative professional learning and teacher development. Fairman et al. (2022) argue that effective professional development should remain contextually relevant to teachers’ classroom realities and professional needs. Kelchtermans et al. (2018) similarly emphasize the importance of collaborative teacher educator development, professional learning communities, and research-informed practice ( Figure 1). These perspectives support the study’s focus on sustainable and context-sensitive professional development systems.

The theoretical framework conceptualizes teacher education and professional development as dynamic processes shaped by interactions among global policy agendas, governance systems, institutional networks, and local educational realities. The framework therefore provides a lens for analyzing how teacher education policies and professional development reforms are interpreted, negotiated, and implemented across diverse contexts within the Global South and Sub-Saharan Africa.

The study focuses on countries within Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), as illustrated in the map above, including regions of West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa. The selected countries include, among others, Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, South Africa, Zambia, Tanzania, and Democratic Republic of the Congo ( Figure 2). The region represents one of the most diverse educational and socio-economic environments globally, making it highly relevant for examining policy, governance, and global–local tensions in teacher education and professional development.

Sub-Saharan Africa is home to over 1.1 billion people, with one of the fastest-growing youth populations in the world. Many countries within the region experience rapid urbanization alongside persistent rural poverty and educational inequality. Economically, SSA includes low-income, lower-middle-income, and emerging middle-income economies, characterized by heavy dependence on agriculture, extractive industries, and informal employment sectors. Countries such as South Africa and Nigeria possess relatively larger economies, while nations including Malawi, Burundi, and South Sudan continue to face severe developmental constraints (World Bank, 2023).

The development context of the region is shaped by uneven infrastructure, limited public financing for education, teacher shortages, and disparities in access to digital technologies. These structural inequalities significantly influence teacher professional development systems and educational governance. According to Popova et al. (2022), many countries in developing regions continue to struggle with the gap between evidence-based teacher professional development models and actual classroom implementation due to institutional and financial limitations. Similarly, Goodwin (2020) argues that globalization has intensified pressures on education systems to align with international standards, often creating tensions between global policy expectations and local educational realities.

Politically, the study area includes both relatively stable democracies and fragile states experiencing conflict, governance instability, or post-conflict reconstruction. Countries such as Rwanda and Ghana have implemented extensive educational reforms under relatively stable governance structures, whereas countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo and South Sudan continue to experience political instability that affects teacher deployment, school governance, and educational continuity. Governance reforms in the region are also increasingly influenced by international organizations, donor agencies, and global education agendas, which sometimes generate tensions between externally driven accountability frameworks and local educational priorities (Forsberg, 2019; Verger, 2021).

Literacy levels across Sub-Saharan Africa remain highly variable. Adult literacy rates are comparatively higher in countries such as South Africa, Kenya, and Ghana, while lower literacy levels persist in parts of Central and West Africa, particularly among rural populations and women. Despite significant progress in expanding access to primary education, many countries still face challenges related to educational quality, teacher preparedness, and learning outcomes. Teacher professional development therefore remains central to improving educational quality and achieving sustainable development goals across the region. Studies by Hargreaves (2021) and Fairman et al. (2022) emphasize that collaborative teacher learning, continuous professional development, and institutional support systems are essential for improving instructional quality in developing-country contexts.

The Sub-Saharan African study area presents a complex intersection of demographic growth, socio-economic inequality, political diversity, and educational reform. These conditions create both opportunities and tensions in the governance and implementation of teacher education and professional development policies, particularly in balancing global reform agendas with localised educational needs and realities.

To address the research focus on policy, governance, and global–local tensions in teacher education and professional development in Sub-Saharan Africa, a systematic literature search was conducted using major academic databases including ISI Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar, SpringerLink, Taylor & Francis Online, Sage Journals, and Elsevier databases. The search concentrated on studies published between 2018 and 2026 in order to capture recent scholarly debates and emerging trends in teacher education reforms, governance systems, and professional development within the Global South and Sub-Saharan Africa.

The search used key terms and combinations including “teacher education,” “teacher professional development,” “policy and governance,” “global-local tensions,” “teacher professionalism,” “educational reforms,” “professional learning communities,” “global education policy,” and “Sub-Saharan Africa.” The search was further refined under the categories of education, teacher development, educational policy, and comparative education.

The inclusion criteria focused on peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and policy-oriented studies examining teacher education, professional development, educational governance, globalization, and policy implementation within Sub-Saharan African contexts. Studies addressing issues of teacher identity, professional standards, educational leadership, collaborative learning, and institutional reforms were also included. Exclusion criteria included studies focusing exclusively on higher education unrelated to teacher development, informal learning environments, student-only perspectives, purely technological interventions without governance dimensions, and studies conducted outside the broader Global South context without relevance to the study objectives.

The initial search produced a large number of articles. Following title and abstract screening, 92 articles were identified for detailed review based on their relevance to teacher education policy, governance structures, and professional development. After a full-text assessment using the inclusion and exclusion criteria, a final set of 46 articles was selected for synthesis and analysis.

The selected studies employed qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method approaches and represented diverse contexts across Sub-Saharan Africa, including East Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa. The reviewed literature provided broad insight into how global education reforms, governance systems, institutional capacities, and local realities shape teacher education and professional development across the region. The final selection of studies therefore provided both conceptual and contextual depth for understanding the tensions and opportunities surrounding teacher education reforms in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The selected articles were systematically examined to identify their major findings, thematic patterns, and conceptual relationships relating to policy, governance, and global–local tensions in teacher education and professional development across Sub-Saharan Africa. The analysis involved organizing, coding, and synthesizing the reviewed studies through selective, open, and axial coding processes in order to generate coherent thematic categories and interpretive insights.

The analysis focused on identifying the central dimensions shaping teacher education reforms and professional development systems within the region. The core analytical focus of the study was teacher education and professional development within the context of governance systems, globalization, and local educational realities. During the open coding process, recurring themes, concepts, and patterns emerging from the reviewed literature were identified and grouped into broader analytical categories.

The analysis generated five major thematic categories: (1) global education policies and governance reforms, (2) teacher professionalism and professional identity, (3) collaborative professional development and professional learning communities, (4) institutional and leadership influences on teacher development, and (5) contextual and global–local tensions influencing policy implementation and educational practice. These categories formed the analytical structure for synthesizing and interpreting the selected studies.

Axial coding was further used to examine relationships among themes by focusing on questions such as how reforms are implemented, under what conditions teacher professional development occurs, what contextual factors influence implementation, and what outcomes emerge from governance and policy processes. Particular attention was given to institutional capacity, leadership structures, socio-cultural realities, infrastructure limitations, resource inequalities, and educational policy environments within Sub-Saharan Africa.

The reviewed studies were analyzed descriptively and comparatively according to their research focus, educational context, methodology, and geographic location. Since most of the selected studies employed qualitative and mixed-method approaches, the findings were interpreted within their specific contextual settings. This approach enabled the study to capture the diversity of experiences, governance arrangements, and policy tensions shaping teacher education and professional development across the Global South and Sub-Saharan Africa. This analytical approach provided a comprehensive understanding of the opportunities, contradictions, and challenges associated with teacher education policy and professional development reforms within diverse African contexts.

This study adopts Cultural Historical Activity Theory (CHAT) as an analytical lens for understanding policy, governance, and global–local tensions in teacher education and professional development across Sub-Saharan Africa. CHAT views learning and professional development as socially situated processes shaped by interactions among individuals, institutions, policies, and broader socio-cultural contexts. The theory is particularly relevant for examining how teachers, school leaders, governments, universities, and international organisations interact within complex educational systems undergoing reform and transformation.

Within this study, teacher education and professional development are understood as collective activities influenced by both global policy agendas and local contextual realities. CHAT emphasises that learning occurs through collaboration, participation, and shared practice within institutional and professional communities. This perspective aligns with the study’s focus on collaborative professional learning, governance networks, and policy implementation processes across diverse educational contexts in the Global South.

The concept of expansive learning is central to the study because it explains how educational actors collectively respond to challenges, contradictions, and reforms by creating new approaches to professional learning and institutional practice. In Sub-Saharan Africa, teacher education reforms are often shaped by interactions among international standards, national education policies, local school realities, and teacher experiences. These interactions frequently generate tensions related to accountability, professional autonomy, resource limitations, curriculum relevance, and policy implementation.

CHAT also emphasises the importance of dialogue, collaboration, and shared problem-solving in transforming educational practice. Professional learning communities, school-based collaboration, and partnerships among governments, universities, schools, and donor agencies can therefore be understood as activity systems through which professional knowledge, leadership practices, and educational reforms are negotiated and adapted to local contexts.

The theory further highlights contradictions as drivers of institutional and professional change. In this study, contradictions emerge between global reform agendas and local educational realities, between centralised governance structures and school-level autonomy, and between professional standards and contextual teaching conditions. These tensions provide opportunities for adaptation, innovation, and the development of more context-sensitive teacher education systems.

CHAT provides a useful framework for analysing how teacher education policies and professional development practices are shaped, interpreted, and transformed through interactions among governance systems, institutional actors, and local educational contexts across Sub-Saharan Africa.

The activity system provides the analytical structure for examining teacher education and professional development within the broader context of policy, governance, and global–local tensions in Sub-Saharan Africa. The framework conceptualises teacher professional development as a collective, socially situated activity shaped by interactions among institutional actors, governance structures, professional communities, and contextual realities.

The activity system consists of interconnected elements, including the subject, object, mediating tools, rules, community, division of labour, and outcomes. In this study, the subjects include teachers, school leaders, teacher educators, policymakers, and professional development stakeholders. The object concerns improving teacher education and professional development systems. Mediating tools include policies, professional standards, curricula, technologies, training programs, and collaborative learning practices that support educational reform and professional learning processes.

The activity system further recognises that rules, including policy frameworks, institutional regulations, accountability systems, and professional norms shape educational activities. The community dimension includes governments, universities, schools, donor agencies, and local educational stakeholders, all of which collectively influence teacher education reforms. Division of labour refers to the distribution of responsibilities among these actors in policy implementation, leadership, training, and professional support.

Within this framework, teacher education and professional development are understood as dynamic processes influenced by continuous interaction among institutional structures, governance systems, and local educational realities ( Figure 3). The activity system also highlights how tensions and contradictions emerge between global reform agendas and contextual conditions, often shaping the success, adaptation, or resistance to educational reforms. The activity system provides a holistic framework for analysing how governance structures, professional practices, institutional relationships, and contextual factors interact to shape teacher education and professional development across Sub-Saharan Africa.

3.1.1. Expansion of teacher professional development programs

The reviewed studies indicate that teacher professional development (TPD) has become a major educational reform priority across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Governments and development partners have increasingly invested in continuous professional development (CPD) initiatives to improve teacher competencies, pedagogical effectiveness, and learning outcomes (Badroodien, 2018). These reforms emerged in response to persistent educational challenges, including low teacher quality, inadequate pedagogical skills, and rising enrolment in primary and secondary education systems (Tilak, 2009).

Several studies revealed that many SSA countries have adopted in-service training, school-based mentoring, peer-learning systems, and open-distance learning models to strengthen teacher capacity (Moon, 2007; Sayed & Badroodien, 2018). However, implementation remains uneven across countries due to differences in institutional capacity, funding availability, and policy commitment.

3.1.2 Teacher quality and educational outcomes

The findings demonstrate a strong relationship between teacher quality and learner achievement. Smith and Motivans (2007) reported that countries with improved teacher training systems and regular professional development opportunities generally recorded better educational outcomes and classroom performance. Similarly, Bainton, Barrett, and Tikly (2016) emphasised that professionally trained teachers with strong pedagogical content knowledge were better able to deliver learner-centred instruction and improve student engagement.

The studies further revealed that continuous professional development contributes to improved classroom management, curriculum delivery, assessment practices, and subject mastery. Ajani (2018) found that teachers who participated in regular in-service professional development demonstrated greater instructional effectiveness and contributed positively to students’ academic performance. These findings suggest that sustained teacher development plays a critical role in enhancing educational quality across SSA.

3.2.1. Shift toward learner-centred pedagogy

A major theme emerging from the literature is the transition from traditional teacher-centred instruction toward learner-centred pedagogical approaches. Dembélé and Miaro-II (2012) observed that pedagogical renewal initiatives in SSA increasingly encourage participatory teaching methods, collaborative learning, and the development of critical thinking skills. Teacher professional development programs were found to support teachers in adapting to curriculum reforms and modern instructional approaches.

Nevertheless, the studies also indicate that the adoption of learner-centred pedagogy remains constrained by overcrowded classrooms, inadequate teaching materials, and limited instructional support. In many rural schools, teachers continue to rely on rote-learning approaches due to resource shortages and insufficient practical training opportunities.

3.2.2 School-based professional development approaches

School-based professional development emerged as one of the most effective strategies for improving teacher practices. Moon (2007) highlighted that collaborative learning environments, peer mentoring, and classroom-based reflection strengthened teachers’ professional competencies more effectively than short-term workshop models. These approaches enabled teachers to contextualise learning within their school environments and to promote continuous professional learning.

Similarly, Howell and Sayed (2018) noted that effective CPD programs integrated mentoring, reflective practice, and ongoing classroom support rather than relying solely on one-off training sessions. Such approaches improved teacher confidence, instructional innovation, and professional collaboration among educators.

3.3.1. Resource constraints and institutional limitations

The reviewed studies consistently identified inadequate funding and weak institutional support as major barriers to effective professional development in SSA. Many education systems experience shortages of training facilities, instructional materials, qualified trainers, and the technological infrastructure necessary to deliver effective CPD programs (Moon & Wolfenden, 2012). Rural schools are particularly disadvantaged due to poor connectivity, limited access to educational resources, and insufficient government support.

Additionally, Dembélé and Miaro-II (2012) emphasised that poor teacher remuneration and unfavourable working conditions negatively affect teacher motivation and participation in professional development activities. In some contexts, teachers lack incentives to engage in continuous learning due to limited career advancement opportunities.

3.3.2. Inequalities in access to professional development

The literature further revealed significant disparities in access to professional development opportunities between urban and rural schools. Teachers in urban schools often have greater access to workshops, mentorship programs, and educational technologies, while rural teachers face logistical and financial barriers that limit their participation (Ajani, 2018). Gender disparities and differences in school infrastructure also contribute to unequal access to training opportunities across the region.

Moreover, several studies observed that many professional development programs adopt generalised approaches that fail to address context-specific educational challenges faced by teachers in diverse SSA environments (Sayed & Badroodien, 2018).

3.4.1. Technology-enhanced professional development

Recent studies indicate increasing interest in technology-supported teacher professional development across SSA. Open and distance learning platforms, mobile learning technologies, and digital teacher training systems are increasingly being explored to address geographical and infrastructural constraints (Badroodien, 2018). These approaches have shown potential for expanding access to CPD, particularly in remote and underserved communities.

However, technological interventions remain constrained by inadequate internet connectivity, low digital literacy levels, and insufficient ICT infrastructure in many SSA countries. Consequently, the effectiveness of digital professional development remains uneven across contexts.

3.4.2. Integrated and sustainable professional development models

The findings also suggest a growing emphasis on integrated and sustainable teacher development frameworks. Cobbold and Dare (2011) and Howell and Sayed (2018) argue that effective teacher development requires integrating pre-service education, in-service training, mentoring, and institutional support systems. Sustainable CPD models were found to promote long-term pedagogical transformation and professional growth among teachers.

Furthermore, studies recommend that teacher development programs should be context-sensitive, participatory, and aligned with national educational priorities to improve effectiveness and sustainability.

The case studies presented in Table 1 provide a comparative overview of teacher professional development (TPD) initiatives and educational reforms across Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The reviewed studies demonstrate that continuous professional development (CPD) plays a significant role in improving teacher competencies, pedagogical practices, instructional leadership, and learner outcomes across diverse educational contexts. Several interventions, including school-based collaborative learning, ICT-supported training, open educational resources (OER), and inclusive education frameworks, were found to enhance teacher effectiveness and classroom engagement. For example, the OER4Schools initiative in Zambia promoted reflective teaching and collaborative professional learning, while Rwanda’s CPD systems strengthened instructional leadership and teacher accountability.

The studies further reveal that technology integration and STEM-focused professional development contribute to improving digital literacy, subject mastery, and innovative teaching approaches among educators. However, persistent challenges continue to undermine the effectiveness of professional development programs in SSA. These include inadequate funding, poor ICT infrastructure, weak institutional support, low teacher remuneration, overcrowded classrooms, and unequal access to training opportunities, particularly in rural schools. Overall, the findings emphasise the need for sustainable, inclusive, and context-sensitive teacher development frameworks that integrate continuous support, mentoring, and policy commitment to improve educational quality and long-term learning outcomes across the region.

Across the Global South and Sub-Saharan Africa, innovative teacher education and professional development reforms increasingly combine global policy agendas with localized educational realities. Common innovations include digital professional learning platforms, school-based mentoring, peer learning communities, competency-based teacher education, and collaborative university-school partnerships. However, these reforms often reveal tensions between internationally driven accountability frameworks and contextual needs related to infrastructure, cultural relevance, teacher autonomy, and equity.

A recurring governance challenge involves balancing standardised global reforms with locally responsive pedagogical practices ( Table 2). While donor-supported initiatives and transnational education policies have expanded access to teacher development opportunities, implementation gaps remain due to resource inequalities, digital divides, and institutional capacity constraints. Nevertheless, many countries demonstrate that hybrid approaches integrating local knowledge systems, collaborative learning, and context-sensitive professional development can strengthen teacher effectiveness and educational resilience.

The reviewed studies show that interactions between global policy agendas, local educational realities, governance systems, and technological change increasingly influence teacher education and professional development. The findings suggest that future reforms should move away from highly standardised approaches toward more context-responsive, collaborative, and sustainable professional development systems.

A major direction identified in the literature is the expansion of digital and blended learning models. Ramírez-Montoya et al. (2021) and Goos et al. (2020) note that virtual and blended platforms provide flexible opportunities for teacher learning, particularly in resource-constrained and geographically dispersed contexts. The COVID-19 pandemic further exposed weaknesses in digital preparedness and highlighted the need for stronger ICT infrastructure and teacher digital competencies (Van Nuland et al., 2020). Future reforms will therefore require greater investment in access to technology, digital literacy, and online teaching capacity, especially in rural and underserved areas.

The studies also emphasise the importance of collaborative, school-based professional learning. Hargreaves (2021), Hauge (2019), and Shirrell et al. (2019) demonstrate that professional learning communities, peer mentoring, and collaborative networks can improve instructional practice, reflective learning, and teacher support. These findings suggest that future policies should prioritise continuous, practice-based learning rather than short-term workshop models.

Another recurring issue involves tensions between global accountability frameworks and local educational contexts. International reforms often promote standardised competencies and performance measures that may not align with local realities. Revina et al. (2020) highlight how limited institutional capacity, centralised governance, and uneven resource distribution weaken implementation efforts. Future governance frameworks should therefore encourage decentralised, participatory approaches that enable schools, teachers, and communities to contribute to decision-making.

Teacher identity and professional autonomy also emerge as critical concerns. Flores (2020) argues that teachers frequently navigate competing expectations from policies, institutions, and classroom realities. Future teacher education programs should therefore support not only technical skills but also the formation of professional identity, adaptive leadership, and emotional resilience.

The literature further highlights the need to strengthen research capacity in teacher education systems. Murray and Vanassche (2019) stress the importance of research-informed practice and stronger collaboration among universities, schools, governments, and local communities. Such partnerships can improve evidence-based policymaking and generate contextually relevant solutions.

In addition, stakeholder engagement remains essential for sustainable educational reform. Hornby and Lafaele (2023) show that weak parental and community involvement can contribute to school-level tensions. Future professional development frameworks should therefore promote inclusive governance, community participation, and culturally responsive pedagogies.

The findings indicate that effective teacher education reforms in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Global South will depend on balancing global reform agendas with local educational needs. Achieving sustainable improvement will require investment in digital infrastructure, collaborative learning systems, decentralised governance, teacher autonomy, and context-sensitive policy implementation.

The data supporting the findings of this study are based on published literature and publicly available academic sources, which were reviewed and synthesised within the manuscript. All relevant data are included within the article and its referenced sources.

•  Ajani OA: There is a need for in-service professional development of teachers to improve students’ academic performance in Sub-Saharan Africa. Arts and Social Sciences Journal. 2018; 9(2): 1–7.
•  Arnold B: Network models in teacher education: Global logics, national reform and local tensions in Australia. Teacher Education Through Uncertainty and Crisis. Taylor & Francis; 2021. Publisher Full Text
•  Badroodien A: Teacher professional development in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and reforms. Int. J. Educ. Dev. Afr. 2018; 3(1): 45–59.
•  Bainton D, Barrett A, Tikly L: Teacher quality and learning outcomes in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 2016; 49: 237–245.
•  Barkhuizen G: Language Teacher Educator Identity. Cambridge University Press; 2021. Publisher Full Text
•  Bekele TA, et al.: Sustainability challenges in teacher professional development in low-resource educational environments. Afr. Educ. Rev. 2026; 18(1): 33–49.
•  Ben-Peretz M, Flores MA: Tensions and paradoxes in teaching: Implications for teacher education. Eur. J. Teach. Educ. 2018; 41(2): 202–213. Publisher Full Text
•  Bennell P: How well paid are primary school teachers in Sub-Saharan Africa? Afr. Educ. Rev. 2023; 20(1): 1–18.
•  Brauckmann S, Pashiardis P, Ärlestig H: Bringing context and educational leadership together: Fostering the professional development of school principals. Prof. Dev. Educ. 2023; 49(4): 4–15. Publisher Full Text
•  Christie P, Harley K, Penny A: Case studies from Sub-Saharan Africa in teacher professional development. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 2004; 24(5): 473–482.
•  Cobbold C, Dare A: Teacher education systems and reflective practice in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurship Research. 2011; 1(1): 1–11.
•  Dadi T: Teacher professional development: Experiences of three selected African countries. Int. J. Educ. Admin. Pol. Stud. 2015; 7(5): 91–99.
•  Dembélé M, Miaro-II B: Pedagogical renewal and teacher development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Association for the Development of Education in Africa Working Paper. 2003.
•  Dembélé M, Miaro-II B: Pedagogical reform and teacher development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Educ. Res. Policy Prac. 2012; 11(2): 93–107.
•  Estellés M, Fischman GE: Who needs global citizenship education? A review of the literature on teacher education. J. Teach. Educ. 2021; 72(2): 223–236. Publisher Full Text
•  Fairman JC, Smith DJ, Pullen PC, et al.: The challenge of keeping teacher professional development relevant. Prof. Dev. Educ. 2022; 48(5): 759–773.
•  Flores MA: Feeling like a student but thinking like a teacher: A study of the development of professional identity in initial teacher education. J. Educ. Teach. 2020; 46(2): 145–158. Publisher Full Text
•  Forsberg S: Setting a global agenda of education: Cooperation and tension within the global education policy field. Geoforum. 2019; 100: 32–40. Publisher Full Text
•  Goos M, O'Donoghue J, Ni Riordain M, et al.: Designing a national blended learning program for out-of-field mathematics teacher professional development. Prof. Dev. Educ. 2020; 46(4): 614–628.
•  Goodwin AL: Globalisation, global mindsets and teacher education. Action Teach. Educ. 2020; 42(1): 6–18. Publisher Full Text
•  Goodwin AL: Teaching standards, globalisation, and conceptions of teacher professionalism. Eur. J. Teach. Educ. 2021; 44(1): 5–19. Publisher Full Text
•  Hardman F, Abd-Kadir J, Tibuhinda A: Reforming teacher education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int. J. Educ. Dev. 2011; 31(5): 432–439.
•  Hargreaves A: Teacher collaboration: 30 years of research on its nature, forms, limitations and effects. Teachers and Teaching. 2021; 27(1–4): 1–35.
•  Haßler B, Hennessy S, Hofmann R: School-based pedagogic innovation in Sub-Saharan Africa. Teach. Teach. Educ. 2018; 69: 1–12.
•  Haßler B, Hennessy S, Hofmann R: OER4Schools: Outcomes of a sustained professional development intervention in Sub-Saharan Africa. Open Learning. 2020; 5(2): 123–145. Publisher Full Text
•  Haßler B, et al.: Scalable teacher professional development models in Sub-Saharan Africa. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 2021; 69(4): 1821–1840.
•  Hauge K: Teachers’ collective professional development in school: A review study. Cogent Education. 2019; 6(1): 1–17. Publisher Full Text
•  Hennessy S, Harrison D, Wamakote L: Teacher factors influencing classroom use of ICT in Sub-Saharan Africa. Itupale Online Journal of African Studies. 2010; 2: 39–54.
•  Hornby G, Lafaele R: Barriers to parental involvement in education: An explanatory model. Educ. Rev. 2023; 75(1): 1–18.
•  Howell C, Sayed Y: Continuous professional development and teacher learning in Africa. Prof. Dev. Educ. 2018; 44(2): 145–159.
•  Kerkhoff SN, Cloud ME: Equipping teachers with globally competent practices: A mixed methods study on integrating global competence and teacher education. Int. J. Educ. Res. 2020; 103: 101629. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
•  Kelani RR, Khourey-Bowers C: Technology-oriented teacher professional development in Benin. Educ. Technol. Res. Dev. 2012; 60(5): 889–902.
•  Kelchtermans G, Smith K, Vanderlinde R: Towards an international forum for teacher educator development: An agenda for research and action. Eur. J. Teach. Educ. 2018; 41(1): 120–134. Publisher Full Text
•  Kennedy A: Challenges in teacher education: Global influences and local solutions. Educação, Sociedade & Culturas. 2024; 66: 1–15. Publisher Full Text
•  Lange S, Lange N: Teacher professional development and educational reform in Africa. Afr. J. Teach. Educ. 2016; 5(2): 45–60.
•  Li J, Shi Z, Xue E: The problems, needs and strategies of rural teacher development in deep poverty areas in China: Rural schooling stakeholder perspectives. Int. J. Educ. Res. 2020; 99: 101496. Publisher Full Text
•  Majgaard K, Mingat A: Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Comparative Analysis. World Bank; 2012. Publisher Full Text
•  Mbithi PMF, Mbau JS, Muthama NJ, et al.: Higher education and skills development in Africa: An analytical paper on the role of higher learning institutions in sustainable development. Journal of Education and Social Policy. 2021; 4(2): 58–73. Publisher Full Text
•  Moon B: Research analysis: Attracting, developing and retaining effective teachers. UNESCO Working Paper; 2007.
•  Moon B, Wolfenden F: Teacher education and professional development in Sub-Saharan Africa. Open Learning. 2012; 27(1): 7–20.
•  Murray J, Vanassche E: Research capacity building in and on teacher education: Developing practice and learning. Nordisk Tidsskrift for Utdanning og Praksis. 2019; 13(1): 114–129. Publisher Full Text
•  Nkrumah IK: Reimagining inclusion in Sub-Saharan education. Int. J. Incl. Educ. 2025; 29(3): 211–228.
•  Nyirahabimana A, Magagula C: Teachers' and head teachers' continuous professional development in Rwanda and selected Sub-Saharan African countries. African Educational Research Journal. 2023; 11(4): 455–469.
•  Olayemi O, et al.: Professional development of secondary school STEM educators in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic literature review. Int. J. STEM Educ. 2021; 8(1): 1–17.
•  Paine LW: Missing voices and possible dialogues: Problems and possibilities for teacher education. Teachers and Teaching. 2019; 25(4): 684–702. Publisher Full Text
•  Popova A, Evans DK, Breeding ME, et al.: Teacher professional development around the world: The gap between evidence and practice. World Bank Res. Obs. 2022; 37(1): 107–136. Publisher Full Text
•  Ramírez-Montoya MS, Andrade-Vargas L, Rivera-Rogel D, et al.: Trends in the future of professional development education programs. Sustainability. 2021; 13(13): 7244. Publisher Full Text
•  Revina S, Pramana RP, Fillaili R, et al.: Systemic constraints facing teacher professional development in a middle-income country: Indonesia’s experience over four decades. RISE Working Paper.2020.
•  Sayed Y, Badroodien A: Teacher development and educational reform in Sub-Saharan Africa. J. Educ. Policy. 2018; 33(5): 635–650.
•  Shirrell M, Hopkins M, Spillane JP: Educational infrastructure, professional learning, and changes in teachers’ instructional practices and beliefs. Prof. Dev. Educ. 2019; 45(4): 599–613. Publisher Full Text
•  Smith M, Motivans A: Teacher education and learning achievement in Sub-Saharan Africa. UNESCO Institute for Statistics Report; 2007.
•  Taylor N: Teacher quality and educational reform in Sub-Saharan Africa. African Education Review. 2023; 20(2): 55–72.
•  Thakrar J, Wolfenden F, Zinn D: Harnessing open educational resources to the challenges of teacher education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Int. Rev. Res. Open Dist. Learn. 2009; 10(4): 1–15. Publisher Full Text
•  Tilak JBG: Education and development in Sub-Saharan Africa. J. int. coop. educ. 2009; 12(1): 5–17.
•  Tran LT, Nghia TLH: Leadership in international education: Leaders’ professional development needs and tensions. High. Educ. 2020; 80(5): 479–495. Publisher Full Text
•  Van Nuland S, Mandzuk D, Tucker Petrick K, et al.: COVID-19 and its effects on teacher education in Ontario: A complex adaptive systems perspective. J. Educ. Teach. 2020; 46(4): 442–451. Publisher Full Text
•  Verger A: Teachers and the teaching profession in global education policy theory: A commentary. Comp. Educ. Rev. 2021; 65(2): 790–806. Publisher Full Text
•  World Bank: World Development Indicators. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2023.
•  Yin H, Zheng X: Facilitating professional learning communities in China: Do leadership practices and faculty trust matter? Teach. Teach. Educ. 2018; 76: 140–150. Publisher Full Text

Current Reviewer Status:

AWAITING PEER REVIEW

AWAITING PEER REVIEW

?