118Abuna et al. (2026)EthiopiaUpper sec.Three-group quasi-experiment; 150 grade-10 students (IBVLE 45, IBPLE 49, IBNLL 56)Virtual lab vs physical lab vs non-lab InquiryCognitiveInquiry-based virtual lab (IBVLE) produced the largest gains in mechanics understanding191Adimayuda et al. (2025)IndonesiaHigher ed.Convergent parallel mixed methods; 22 first-semester undergraduates (14 male, 8 female)PhET + video + AI-assisted reflection tool (T-MORE)Reflective inquiryCognitiveMcNemar test significant; high-category reduction of momentum–impulse misconceptions309Alabidi et al. (2023)United Arab EmiratesUpper sec.Pretest–posttest quasi-experiment; 90 grade-11 students (experimental 45, control 45)Computer simulationsInquiryCognitiveLarge effect sizes on conceptual understanding of Newton's second law (d = 2.10 female; d = 2.94 male)182Alstein et al. (2026)NetherlandsUpper sec.Lesson study; 42 pre-university students (28 grade 12 at school A; 14 grade 11 at school B)Special-relativity simulation environmentSimulation-based inquiryCognitiveSimulations surfaced and sharpened cognitive conflict; interpreting relativistic behaviour of light remained difficult164Auliya et al. (2025)IndonesiaUpper sec.R&D (4D, through the Develop stage); 42 students at a state upper-secondary school in Bandar Lampung, 2 teachers, 6 expertsPhyphox-integrated e-worksheetPBLCollaborativeMedia feasibility 88.7% and content 93.3%; practicality 93.0–95.2%; effectiveness not yet tested925Bahtiar et al. (2022)IndonesiaLower sec.One-group pretest–posttest pre-experiment; 30 grade-IX students, MTs Hidayatullah MataramPhET (static electricity)Discovery learningCognitive (sci. literacy)Female students' scientific literacy (80) exceeded that of male students (77.95)451Banda and Nzabahimana (2023)MalawiUpper sec.Quasi-experiment; 280 students (control 136, experimental 144)PhET interactive simulations (oscillations and waves)Simulation-based learningCognitive; AffectivePhET group outperformed on motivation and academic achievement464Ben Ouahi et al. (2024)MoroccoLower sec.Three-group quasi-experiment; 166 students aged 13–15 from 6 classes (RL 58, VL 56, RL+VL 52)Real lab, virtual lab, and their combination5E learning cycleCognitiveThe RL+VL combination produced the most substantial gains in electricity learning outcomes430Castillo-Salazar et al. (2026)SpainUpper sec.Five-phase didactic design research; Upper-secondary studentsTangible magnetic analogy to computational simulation (quantum entanglement)Constructivist scaffoldingCognitiveSequencing from concrete analogy to simulation addressed the limits of formalism-heavy approaches105Chen et al. (2025)ChinaLower sec.Three-group quasi-experiment; 120 grade-9 students, three intact classesStructured virtual lab (SIVL) in a flipped classroomStructured inquiryCognitive; Affective; Inquiry skillsSIVL improved achievement, inquiry skills, and both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation418Coban et al. (2025)GermanyHigher ed.Experiment + eye tracking; Undergraduates in a university lab courseAR + personalised ChatGPT feedback (quantum cryptography)Inquiry with AI-generated feedbackCognitive; Learning processAR visualised abstract concepts; personalised LLM feedback supported the cognitive learning process597Cook et al. (2022)United StatesHigher ed.Naturalistic split-design study; 35 students per section, mechanics courseVideo + virtual lab simulation (remote IBLA)InquiryCognitive; AffectiveStudents perceived the video-plus-simulation combination as more effective than either component alone579Evangelou and Kotsis (2019)GreecePrimaryRandomised controlled pretest–posttest experiment; 110 grade-5 students (experimental 55, control 55; 58 boys, 52 girls)Real vs virtual experiment (frictional force)Experimental inquiryCognitiveBoth modes were equally effective for building conceptual understanding of frictional force at primary level774Fan et al. (2018)ChinaUpper sec.Quasi-experiment, four classes; 117 students and 2 teachers, BeijingInteractive simulations (ISIA)InquiryCognitive; SPS; AffectiveISIA superior on conceptual understanding, inquiry process skills, and confidence in learning14Faqih et al. (2023)IndonesiaUpper sec.R&D (ADDIE); 10 grade-11 students; 2 content experts, 2 media expertsFisikawaii LMS: VR + gamification (GAFCC)Inquiry-collaborative AffectiveValid (content 85.5%; media 87.25%; student response 86.4%); learning participation increased670Fatmaryanti et al. (2022)IndonesiaHigher ed.R&D (modified Borg & Gall); 54 pre-service physics teachers, 5 lecturersVirtual-lab task modelInquiry + social and scientific communicationInquiry skills; CollaborativeA nine-step task model proved essential for inquiry skills and for communication86Fatmaryanti et al. (2024)IndonesiaHigher ed.R&D (ADDIE) + one-group pretest–posttest DBR; Prospective physics teachersRemote laboratory (2 experimental apparatuses)Active and authentic learningCognitiveRemote-lab design improved prospective physics teachers' multiple-representation ability223Flegr et al. (2023a)GermanyLower sec.Three-condition experiment; 154 grade-7 students analysed (159 recruited)Virtual experiment + video recordingInquiryCognitiveInquiry improved conceptual understanding; virtual+video combination did not exceed virtual alone425Flegr et al. (2023b)GermanyLower sec.Three-condition experiment; 202 students analysed (275 recruited, 11 classes, 4 schools)Combination of real + virtual experimentsInquiryCognitiveThe real–virtual combination outperformed the single real experiment; sequence was not decisive396Ford et al. (2023)United StatesHigher ed.Classroom study (analysis of 36 lab reports); 36 lab reports, mechanics-of-materials courseRemote laboratory + home kitsCollaborative guided inquiryAffective; CognitiveGoal-setting agency rose from 53% to 83%; 25 distinct design approaches595Fuhrmann et al. (2018)United StatesUpper sec.Three-condition experiment (classes randomised); Grade-9 studentsBifocal Modelling: physical experiment + real-time computer modellingScience inquiryCognitive; MetamodelingDesigning one's own model versus interacting with a given model produced different content and metamodeling outcomes116Fukuda et al. (2024)CanadaHigher ed.Randomised experiment, four groups; 83 undergraduates recruited, 80 analysed after 3 outliers were excluded (M age 19)Electric-circuit simulation + on-demand domain textInquiry with just-in-time promptsCognitiveJust-in-time inquiry prompts facilitated rule learning, moderated by prior knowledge; self-explanation guidance showed no main effect871Gerhátová et al. (2020)SlovakiaPrimaryTwo-group experiment (two-year study); 155 grade-9 students (experimental 85, control 70)INTe-L: real, remote, and simulated experimentsProject-based CognitiveProject-based teaching with INTe-L was more effective than instructionist teaching261Gnesdilow and Puntambekar (2025)United StatesLower sec.Quasi-experiment + reasoning analysis; 385 students analysed of 552 (physical lab 180, virtual 205)Physical vs virtual lab (pulley)Collaborative inquiryCognitive; TransferAbility to apply learning to a new context differed between modes; apparatus complexity affected outcomes668Hamed and Aljanazrah (2020)PalestineHigher ed.Mixed-methods quasi-experiment; 90 undergraduates (experimental 45, control 45)Virtual experiments in a general physics labInquiryCognitive; SPSVirtual experiments were at least as effective as face-to-face theoretical preparation622Husnaini and Chen (2019)IndonesiaUpper sec.Quasi-experiment with random assignment; 68 secondary studentsPhET (pendulum) vs technology-enhanced physical lab (Camera Stopwatch, Smart Tools)Guided inquiryCognitive; Affective; Inquiry skillsVirtual lab superior on difficult concepts and inquiry self-efficacy; physical lab superior on planning and refining experiments149Jian et al. (2024)TaiwanHigher ed.Experiment; 2×3 factorial ANOVA + sequential analysis; 105 undergraduates (hands-on 53, simulated 52)Simulated vs hands-on experiment (pulley mechanics) + eye trackingInquiryCognitive; Learning processGaze patterns and learning processes differed between modes; effects moderated by prior knowledge549Karelina et al. (2022)United StatesHigher ed.Comparative survey (eight-channel flow model); Physics undergraduates, ISLE design labsApparatus-based vs video-based labDesign inquiryAffectiveThe video group more often occupied the worry and anxiety zones, calling for different scaffolding336Karim et al. (2025)MalaysiaUpper sec.Mixed-method case study; 15 urban upper-secondary studentsAR + scaffolding kit (gravitation)Scaffolding within inquiryCognitive; HOT skillsIntegrating scaffolding with AR improved problem solving involving mathematical calculation665Lämsä et al. (2022)FinlandHigher ed.Multimodal study (video + eye tracking, ENA); Two pairs of physics undergraduatesSimulation-based environment (electrostatics, via Zoom)Collaborative knowledge constructionCollaborativeThe focus and timing of joint gaze marked the level of collaborative knowledge construction810Mihret et al. (2022)EthiopiaHigher ed.Quasi-experiment, non-equivalent comparison group; 63 second-year pre-service physics teachers, three teacher collegesBlended lab (virtual + real)Experimental inquiryAffectiveBlended laboratory experimentation improved pre-service teachers' attitudes towards physics laboratories281Mihret et al. (2023)EthiopiaHigher ed.Quasi-experiment, non-equivalent comparison group; 63 pre-service physics teachers (blended 16, virtual 26, real 21)Blended, virtual, and real physics lab (electricity and magnetism)Experimental inquiryCognitive (NOS)Blended laboratory experimentation was most effective for understanding the nature of science436Mufit et al. (2025)IndonesiaUpper sec.Development research + limited trial; Upper-secondary studentsAR with a cognitive-conflict model + STEM integrationCognitive conflictCognitive (sci. literacy)AR-supported practical learning supported scientific literacy on Newton's law of gravitation473Narayanan et al. (2023)IndiaHigher ed.Multi-year implementation case study; 60 undergraduates at a leading Indian technological universityESSENCe electronics lab (staging, scaffolding, instruments)Collaborative inquiryInquiry skills; CollaborativeThe ESSENCe framework trained experimental research skills through scaffolding and collaboration407Ouahi et al. (2026)MoroccoUpper sec.Two-group quasi-experiment; 35 students in the comparison groupInteractive simulations5E learning cycleAffective; CognitiveAttitude towards physics shaped performance; interactive simulations improved both749Oymak and Ogan-Bekiroglu (2021)TürkiyeUpper sec.Experiment with random assignment; 96 grade-9 students (48 per group)Virtual vs physical manipulatives (kinematics, dynamics)InquiryCognitive; AffectiveEffects equivalent; virtual manipulatives marginally advantageous because they avoid student measurement error15Papalazarou et al. (2024)GreeceUpper sec.Quasi-experiment; 38 grade-3 upper-secondary students (20 vs 18)Virtual vs physical lab (mechanics, electricity)InquiryCognitive; AffectiveNo significant difference between modes; attitudes equally positive362Pavlou et al. (2024)CyprusPrimaryComparative experiment across domains; Preschool childrenPhysical vs virtual manipulativesExperimental inquiryCognitiveHaptic feedback was not always decisive; the advantage of each mode depended on the science domain535Puntambekar et al. (2021)United StatesLower sec.Comparative study of group discourse; 115 grade-6 students (virtual 61, physical 54; 14 groups recorded)Physical vs virtual labCollaborative inquiryCollaborativeVirtual labs elicited more talk about predictions and variable relationships; physical labs more procedural talk807Puspitaningtyas and Putri (2021)IndonesiaUpper sec.One-group pretest–posttest mixed methods; A group of upper-secondary studentsVirtual laboratory on light wavesStructured inquiryCognitiveMastery of wave-optics concepts improved; interference and diffraction remained difficult90Rizki et al. (2025)IndonesiaUpper sec.Three-group quasi-experiment; 102 students (ESIL 35, ordinary inquiry 34, traditional 33)EthnoVLab: ethnoscience virtual simulation + ARInquiryAffective; HOT skillsESIL group outperformed ordinary inquiry and traditional instruction on creativity and motivation528Roll et al. (2018)CanadaHigher ed.Two-condition experiment; 97 undergraduates (non-directive 49, directive 48)PhET Circuit Construction KitInquiry with varied guidanceCognitive; Affective; BehaviourDirective guidance raised knowledge for the higher-knowledge group but suppressed their attitudinal growth61Saprudin et al. (2025)IndonesiaHigher ed.Three-group experiment; 54 prospective teachers, Basic Physics Experiment I course, TernateAR within the URSLA frameworkInquiry (research skill development)Cognitive; SPSURSLA-AR group outperformed URSLA without AR and conventional instruction on science competencies884Sari et al. (2019)TürkiyeHigher ed.Pretest–posttest quasi-experiment; 60 undergraduatesVirtual lab vs computer-based real labExperimental inquiryAffective; SPSComputer-based lab superior on graphing skills; attitudes and motivation equivalent419Sebastian et al. (2023)IndonesiaUpper sec.One-group pretest–posttest quasi-experiment; 61 grade-11 science students from two classesFlip-book + virtual lab simulation (optical instruments)PBLCognitiveVisual representation improved; N-gain 0.828 (high category)233Siantuba et al. (2023)ZambiaHigher ed.Quasi-experiment; 171 first-year undergraduates (experimental 100, control 71)Online digital laboratory (Go-Lab)Misconception-targeted inquiryCognitiveInquiry activities designed to target misconceptions produced greater conceptual change363Sinensis et al. (2025)IndonesiaHigher ed.Pretest–posttest pre-experiment; 67 pre-service physics teachersAR-based teaching materials (modern physics) + mind mappingCollaborative problem solvingHOT skillsCreativity increased significantly (p = 0.001; Rasch analysis and paired-samples test)683Taibu et al. (2021)United StatesHigher ed.Mixed methods (one-semester group project); 61 participants across two semestersPhET in group projectsCollaborative inquirySPS; AffectiveLarge effect size on laboratory skills (d > 0.8); 88% positive responses724Taşlıdere (2021)TürkiyeHigher ed.Comparative quasi-experiment; Pre-service science teachersSimulation activities + concept-cartoon conceptual change texts5E learning cycleCognitiveThe 5E model with simulations and conceptual change texts both improved understanding of mechanical waves672Thees et al. (2022)GermanyHigher ed.Randomised experiment, two conditions; Undergraduates (AR condition N = 49; 80% male, M age 19)AR head-mounted display vs separate display during lab workHands-on inquiry + multimediaCognitiveSpatial contiguity through AR affected coherence formation and cognitive load179Tokatlidis et al. (2024)GreeceHigher ed.Two-group quasi-experiment + ANCOVA; 152 undergraduates (136 male, 16 female; aged 19–21)TINA-TI virtual lab vs hands-on lab (operational amplifiers)InquiryCognitive; Inquiry skills; Measurement skillsHands-on group outperformed the virtual group (F = 9.04; p = 0.003); knowledge gains largest, then inquiry skills740Tsivitanidou et al. (2021)CyprusUpper sec.Quasi-experiment + cluster analysis; 107 upper-secondary studentsImmersive VR (special theory of relativity)InquiryCognitive; AffectiveSignificant interaction between conceptual gains and learners' pre-existing attitudinal profiles194Warkentin et al. (2026)Germany/SwitzerlandHigher ed.Design research (learners not yet tested); —AR smartglasses (Lorentz force)Hands-on inquiry + multiple representationsCognitive (design)Superimposing fields in AR linked phenomenon to representation and reduced cognitive load348Xing et al. (2023)United StatesUpper sec.Design-based research + learning analytics; Grade-9 studentsInfrared Explorer: physical experiment + virtual environment (thermodynamics)Inquiry with concreteness fadingCognitiveAugmented interaction strengthened thermodynamics understanding; learning analytics mapped the process394Yakkou et al. (2024)MoroccoUpper sec.Quasi-experiment; 35 studentsElectrical-systems evolution simulatorInquiry (prediction, variable control, hypothesising)Affective; CognitiveThe simulator improved motivation and academic performance in electricity lessons697Yuliati et al. (2018)IndonesiaHigher ed.Mixed methods, embedded experimental model; 34 pre-service physics teachers, Jambi State UniversityPhET (direct-current electricity)InquiryCognitive; HOT skillsStudents using a scientific approach showed better problem-solving skills687Yusuf and Widyaningsih (2020)IndonesiaHigher ed.Qualitative study through lesson-study stages; Physics Education students, University of PapuaE-learning-based virtual laboratory mediaInquiry within lesson studyMetacognitiveE-learning-based virtual lab media fostered students' metacognitive skills322Yusuf et al. (2024a)IndonesiaHigher ed.R&D (ADDIE); 54 undergraduates, University of PapuaVirtual laboratory platform (Physics Fun)POGILCognitive; AcceptanceMedia effective and practical; experimental capability improved in remote and underserved regions108Yusuf et al. (2024b)IndonesiaUpper sec.Quantitative survey (SEM; TAM–TRA); 136 upper-secondary students, West PapuaMobile V-Lab (Physics Fun)POGILTechnology acceptanceAttitude and behavioural intention driven by perceived ease of use and subjective norm; perceived usefulness had no direct effect