Honey bees (Apis mellifera L.) play an indispensable role in ecosystem sustainability and agricultural productivity through pollination while simultaneously producing a wide variety of biologically valuable hive products. Owing to its vast geographical area, remarkable ecological heterogeneity, and climatic diversity extending from alpine mountains and temperate forests to steppe and semi-arid ecosystems, Kazakhstan represents one of the most promising apicultural regions in Central Asia. Beekeeping is present in different geographical parts of Kazakhstan, from the central steppes to southern highlands, and this study is an effort to contribute to the ongoing national effort for the development of Southern Kazakhstan, which has a particular standing with its suitable climatic zones and floral microhabitats. Beekeeping in the districts of Southern Kazakhstan serves a dual purpose, both for commercial production and for providing materials for research efforts to characterization of biochemical compositions and developing streamlined production frameworks. Notably, these beekeeping facilities have also provided material for laboratory-based chemical characterization efforts. These diverse environments provide abundant nectar- and pollen-producing plants that substantially influence the phytochemical composition and biological quality of locally produced honey, pollen, propolis, royal jelly, and other bee products. Particularly, the Turkestan, Almaty, East Kazakhstan, and Zhetysu regions possess rich floral resources and relatively low levels of industrial pollution, creating favorable conditions for sustainable beekeeping and the production of high-quality bee products suitable for domestic consumption and international markets (Bradbear, 2009; Dimeyeva et al., 2016; Gritsenko et al., 2023).

Beyond their traditional nutritional role, bee products are now widely recognized as functional foods, nutraceuticals, and promising sources of pharmaceutical lead compounds. Increasing scientific evidence demonstrates that honey, pollen, propolis, bee bread, royal jelly, and bee venom exhibit antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, and anticancer activities. These biological properties are largely attributed to their complex phytochemical composition, particularly phenolic acids and flavonoids, which have become major targets of natural product research and pharmaceutical development (Selamoglu et al., 2025a; Selamoglu et al., 2025b).

Among the numerous phytochemicals identified in bee products, flavonoids represent one of the most biologically active groups because of their ability to modulate oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis, and metabolic signaling pathways. Their abundance is strongly influenced by botanical origin, geographical location, climatic conditions, and seasonal variation. Kazakhstan’s exceptional botanical diversity therefore provides a valuable source of chemically diverse bee products containing numerous pharmacologically important flavonoids. Representative floral resources and their associated flavonoids reported in Kazakhstan bee products are summarized in Table 1. Compounds such as myricetin, quercetin, galangin, chrysin, pinocembrin, kaempferol, and rutin have consistently been identified in honey, pollen, and propolis originating from temperate floral sources. Collectively, these molecules contribute to the antioxidant capacity and therapeutic potential of bee products while representing attractive candidates for future nutraceutical and pharmaceutical development.

Among these flavonoids, myricetin, galangin, quercetin, kaempferol have emerged generally the most promising bioactive compounds because of its broad spectrum of pharmacological activities. Numerous experimental studies have demonstrated that these chemicals possess potent antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antimicrobial, and anticancer properties through modulation of multiple molecular targets associated with oxidative stress, glucose metabolism, mitochondrial function, inflammatory signaling, and programmed cell death. Furthermore, they have also been shown to regulate pathways implicated in diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, chronic inflammatory diseases, and several types of cancer. Despite these promising biological activities, the successful pharmaceutical development remain constrained by uncertainties regarding their pharmacokinetic behavior, gastrointestinal absorption, membrane permeability, metabolic stability, and oral bioavailability. Therefore, evaluating these characteristics have become an essential prerequisite for assessing its translational potential as a natural therapeutic agent.

Recent advances in computational pharmacology have transformed early-stage natural product research by enabling rapid prediction of physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetic behavior, and drug-likeness before experimental validation. Among the available computational platforms, SwissADME has become one of the most widely accepted tools for predicting molecular descriptors, gastrointestinal absorption, blood-brain barrier permeability, cytochrome P450 interactions, medicinal chemistry parameters, and compliance with established drug-likeness rules. Such in silico approaches considerably reduce development time and experimental costs while facilitating the prioritization of promising natural compounds for subsequent biological investigation. Although the biological activities of these compounds have been extensively investigated, relatively few studies have examined its pharmacokinetic characteristics and drug-likeness specifically within the context of bee products from Kazakhstan, despite the country’s remarkable apicultural biodiversity and increasing importance in the international honey market. Scientific characterization of bioactive constituents from Kazakhstan bee products is becoming increasingly important not only for understanding their pharmaceutical potential but also for supporting quality standardization, authentication, traceability, value-added commercialization, and sustainable development of the national beekeeping sector. As illustrated in Figure 1, Kazakhstan’s diverse floral resources support the production of chemically rich bee products that may serve as valuable reservoirs of pharmacologically relevant flavonoids. Therefore, the present study aimed to comprehensively evaluate the physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetic profile, medicinal chemistry characteristics, and drug-likeness of some bioactive molecules using the SwissADME platform, thereby providing a scientific basis for future pharmaceutical exploitation of Kazakhstan bee products and contributing to the development of sustainable, value-added apicultural products.

The PubChem database was used for the querying and obtaining SMILES code for the myricetin, galangin, quercetin, kaempferol molecules (Kim et al., 2025). Following the addition of SMILES code, the SwissADME web-based tool (www.swissadme.ch) was used for analyses. The SwissADME as a tool provides predictions for diverse parameters that include molecular physicochemistry, pharmacokinetics, similarity indices, chemical compatibility, and was developed and designed by the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB). The ADMET results and BOILED-Egg graph results were shared in the results section (Daina and Zoete, 2016; Daina et al., 2017).

East Kazakhstan, Pavlodar, Abai, Almaty, Turkestan, and Zhetysu are some of the major geographical areas where Kazakhstan’s honey production is centered. With 603.7 tonnes of honey sent overall in 2024, Uzbekistan emerged as the top export destination, making up 73.2% of the entire export volume. Canada (8.9%), China (6.1%), and Saudi Arabia (3.8%) were secondary export destinations; sales to the US and Russia were still quite small. Honey imports, on the other hand, totaled 1,657.3 tons, suggesting a significant trade imbalance. 97.9% of all honey imports came from Russia, underscoring Kazakhstan’s heavy reliance on one outside supplier. Kazakhstan’s honey trade’s import and export structure in 2024 ( Table 2).

The molecular structure of myricetin, a natural flavonoid, is shown in Figure 2, and its general chemical properties are listed in Table 3. To assess whether the molecule is a suitable chemical molecule in terms of bioavailability, the SwissADME Bioavailability Radar graph is shown in Figure 2 (Daina et al., 2017). This graph allows for the rapid visualization of the drug candidate molecule to be used. According to this, the myricetin molecule has ideal ranges for parameters indicating its fat solubility (LIPO), size (SIZE) dependent on molecular weight, insolubility (INSOLU) indicating whether the molecule dissolves in water, and flexibility (FLEX) indicating the molecule’s ability to change conformation based on the number of rotatable bonds. (INSOLU), and flexibility (FLEX), which indicates the molecule’s ability to change conformation based on the number of rotatable bonds. The molecule’s polarity (POLAR) and aromatic/double bond content (INSATU) ratio being high indicates that it is outside the ideal range ( Figure 2). Similar to myricetin, the bioavailability radar of galangin demonstrated favorable values for lipophilicity, molecular size, flexibility, and solubility. In contrast to myricetin, galangin exhibited a lower polarity owing to its reduced number of hydroxyl groups, positioning most physicochemical descriptors within the optimal range for oral bioavailability. These findings suggest a more balanced physicochemical profile that may support improved membrane permeability. Kaempferol also displayed a favorable bioavailability profile characterized by appropriate lipophilicity, molecular size, and flexibility. Although its polarity remained moderately elevated because of multiple hydroxyl substituents, the deviation from the optimal range was less pronounced than that observed for myricetin. Overall, the radar plot indicated physicochemical characteristics compatible with acceptable drug-likeness. The bioavailability radar of quercetin revealed physicochemical properties largely comparable to those of kaempferol. While molecular size, lipophilicity, flexibility, and solubility fell within the desirable range, increased polarity associated with the presence of multiple hydroxyl groups remained the principal factor limiting its overall bioavailability profile. Nevertheless, quercetin retained favorable drug-likeness characteristics according to the SwissADME assessment ( Figure 2).

The fundamental physicochemical properties of the molecule are listed in Table 4. According to the properties listed here, the myricetin molecule has a molecular weight of 318.24 g/mol and a TPSA (Topological Polar Surface Area) of 151.59 Å². According to Lipinski’s ‘Five Rules’, a molecular weight of <500 g/mol is ideally considered for a molecule to be drug-like. (Lipinski et al., 2001). According to Hydrogen Bond Capacity, the myricetin molecule has 6 Donor and 8 Acceptor points. This number is very high. The molecule bonds very tightly with water, which makes it difficult to pass through fatty tissues (cell membranes). The principal differences among the flavonoids were observed in their hydrogen-bonding capacity and molecular polarity. Galangin contained the fewest hydrogen-bond acceptors (5) and donors (3), whereas myricetin exhibited the highest values (8 acceptors and 6 donors), reflecting its extensive hydroxylation pattern. Kaempferol and quercetin displayed intermediate hydrogen-bonding capacities, with six and seven acceptors and four and five donors, respectively. These structural differences were also reflected in the topological polar surface area (TPSA). Galangin showed the lowest TPSA (90.90 Å²), followed by kaempferol (111.13 Å²) and quercetin (131.36 Å²), whereas myricetin exhibited the highest polarity with a TPSA of 151.59 Å². The gradual increase in TPSA closely paralleled the increasing number of hydroxyl substituents, suggesting that hydrogen-bonding capacity is the primary determinant of polarity among the investigated flavonoids. Since elevated TPSA generally reduces passive membrane permeability, galangin is expected to possess more favorable permeability characteristics than the more highly hydroxylated flavonoids, particularly myricetin. Overall, the results indicate that although the investigated flavonoids share a common structural scaffold, variations in hydroxyl substitution substantially influence their physicochemical profiles and may consequently affect their pharmacokinetic behavior.

Considering the lipophilicity and water solubility values of myricetin given in Table 5, the Consensus Log P_o/w is determined as 0.38. This indicates that the molecule is moderately lipophilic, meaning it can pass through the cell membrane. The lipophilicity profiles of the investigated flavonoids were generally comparable, although galangin exhibited the highest lipophilic character because of its lower hydroxyl substitution. Conversely, myricetin displayed the lowest consensus Log P value, reflecting its higher polarity. Kaempferol and quercetin showed intermediate lipophilicity, suggesting a balance between aqueous solubility and membrane permeability. Despite sharing a common flavonoid backbone, the four compounds exhibited distinct lipophilicity values that closely reflected their degree of hydroxyl substitution. Galangin showed the highest consensus Log P value (1.63), indicating the greatest lipophilic character among the investigated flavonoids, whereas myricetin displayed the lowest value (0.38), consistent with its extensive hydroxylation and increased polarity. Kaempferol (1.20) and quercetin (0.79) exhibited intermediate lipophilicity, representing a gradual transition between galangin and myricetin. The same structural trend was reflected in the predicted water solubility. According to the ESOL model, all four flavonoids were classified as soluble, although quantitative solubility differed among compounds. Myricetin demonstrated the highest predicted aqueous solubility (2.92 × 10⁻¹ mg/mL), followed by quercetin (1.96 × 10⁻¹ mg/mL), kaempferol (1.32 × 10⁻¹ mg/mL), and galangin (8.74 × 10⁻² mg/mL). Comparable trends were observed using the Ali and SILICOS-IT prediction models, confirming that increasing hydroxyl substitution generally enhanced water solubility while reducing lipophilicity. Overall, the physicochemical predictions revealed an inverse relationship between lipophilicity and aqueous solubility across the investigated flavonoids. Galangin exhibited the highest lipophilicity but the lowest predicted aqueous solubility, whereas myricetin displayed the opposite profile. Kaempferol and quercetin demonstrated intermediate characteristics, suggesting a more balanced distribution between hydrophilic and lipophilic properties that may influence their pharmacokinetic behavior.

Table 6 and 7 shows that myricetin has low gastrointestinal absorption (GI absorption) and is not permeant to the blood-brain barrier (BBB). According to the data in the table generated by SwissADME predictions and the BOILED-Egg graph results, myricetin shows low gastrointestinal absorption. The BOILED-Egg (Brain or IntestinaL EstimateD permeation) model visualizes a molecule’s Gastrointestinal absorption (HIA) and Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) passage. The X-axis provides information about the lipophilicity (WLOGP) of the molecule, while the Y-axis provides information about the polarity (TPSA) of the molecule ( Table 6 and 7). As indicated in Figure 3, myricetin exhibits low gastrointestinal absorption and no blood-brain barrier permeability (Daina and Zoete., 2016). Galangin exhibited the most favorable oral pharmacokinetic profile, with high predicted gastrointestinal absorption and compliance with the major drug-likeness rules. Kaempferol and quercetin also demonstrated acceptable pharmacokinetic characteristics, whereas myricetin showed comparatively lower gastrointestinal absorption, primarily attributable to its high polarity and elevated TPSA. None of the four compounds was predicted to readily cross the blood-brain barrier, indicating limited central nervous system exposure.

Marked differences were observed in gastrointestinal absorption despite the structural similarity of the four compounds. Myricetin was predicted to exhibit low gastrointestinal (GI) absorption, whereas galangin, kaempferol, and quercetin all showed high predicted GI absorption. This difference is consistent with the higher polarity and larger topological polar surface area of myricetin compared with the other flavonoids. None of the investigated compounds was predicted to penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB), suggesting limited central nervous system exposure following systemic administration. Likewise, none of the flavonoids was identified as a substrate of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), indicating that active P-gp-mediated efflux is unlikely to represent a major limitation to their intestinal disposition. Predicted skin permeability also differed slightly among the compounds. Galangin exhibited the highest skin permeability (Log Kp = −6.32 cm/s), followed by kaempferol (−6.67 cm/s) and quercetin (−7.01 cm/s), whereas myricetin showed the lowest predicted skin permeability (−7.37 cm/s). These results closely paralleled the lipophilicity profiles of the flavonoids, with the less polar compounds demonstrating greater membrane permeability than the highly hydroxylated myricetin. Overall, the pharmacokinetic predictions indicate a progressive improvement in membrane permeability from myricetin to galangin, reflecting the influence of hydroxyl substitution on molecular polarity and suggesting that relatively less hydroxylated flavonoids may possess more favorable absorption characteristics.

The predicted drug-likeness and medicinal chemistry properties of myricetin, galangin, kaempferol, and quercetin are summarized in Table 7. All four flavonoids satisfied the Ghose criteria and were classified as lead-like compounds with an identical predicted bioavailability score of 0.55, indicating comparable potential for oral bioavailability. In addition, all compounds exhibited relatively low synthetic accessibility scores (3.12–3.27), suggesting moderate feasibility for chemical synthesis. Among the investigated flavonoids, galangin, kaempferol, and quercetin demonstrated the most favorable drug-likeness profiles. These compounds fully complied with Lipinski’s rule of five as well as the Veber, Egan, and Muegge filters, indicating physicochemical characteristics generally associated with orally active drug candidates (Veber et al., 2002). In contrast, myricetin exhibited one violation of Lipinski’s rule due to its high number of hydrogen-bond donors (NH or OH > 5), together with additional violations of the Veber, Egan, and Muegge criteria resulting from its elevated topological polar surface area (TPSA) and extensive hydroxylation. Medicinal chemistry assessment further distinguished the investigated flavonoids. Galangin and kaempferol showed no PAINS or Brenk structural alerts, suggesting a lower probability of assay interference and fewer structural liabilities during early-stage drug discovery. Conversely, both myricetin and quercetin generated one PAINS alert (catechol_A) and one Brenk alert (catechol), reflecting the presence of catechol moieties that may contribute to nonspecific biological responses in high-throughput screening assays. Overall, the predicted drug-likeness profiles indicate that galangin and kaempferol possess the most favorable balance between physicochemical properties and medicinal chemistry parameters, whereas the extensive hydroxylation of myricetin results in several rule-based violations despite maintaining an acceptable bioavailability score and lead-likeness classification.

The BOILED-Egg model further illustrated the differences in predicted gastrointestinal absorption among the investigated flavonoids. Galangin occupied the region associated with favorable passive intestinal absorption, whereas kaempferol and quercetin were positioned close to the optimal absorption zone. In contrast, myricetin remained outside the optimal gastrointestinal absorption region because of its higher polarity. None of the investigated compounds was predicted to efficiently penetrate the blood-brain barrier.

CYP450 inhibition data were temporarily unavailable for all four compounds at the time of analysis ( Table 6), precluding any conclusions regarding cytochrome P450-mediated drug–drug interaction potential. This represents a limitation of the current SwissADME-based assessment and warrants re-evaluation once platform predictions become available, or verification using an alternative in silico CYP inhibition model. The Log Kp (skin permeation) value of −7.37 cm/s again indicates that myricetin has a low capacity to pass through the skin, suggesting that its application to the skin or mucous membranes is inefficient. Lipinski’s 5 Rules are an important parameter for drug design, evaluating the drug potential of an orally administered compound. According to these rules, myricetin’s Hydrogen Bond Donors (H-Bond Donors) should be less than 5, whereas NHorOH >5 is a rule violation. According to Veber’s rules, a TPSA value greater than 140 Å² for myricetin is also considered a violation (Veber et al., 2002). The bioavailability score for myricetin was found to be 0.55. This score indicates that the molecule has a 55% probability of exhibiting bioavailability greater than 10%. This is a standard value for a plant compound. PAINS (Pan-Assay Interference Compounds) is used to screen for chemical groups that give misleading results in high-throughput screening of molecules with drug potential. The catechol A group motifs in myricetin are listed as PAINS alerts (Baell and Holloway, 2010). The value indicating the ease of synthesizing myricetin in the laboratory is stated as 3.27, which is close to 1, indicating moderate ease (Ertl and Schuffenhauer, 2009). This is usually a deception arising from its chemical structure rather than a true therapeutic effect. Therefore, biological studies conducted with this molecule should be interpreted with great caution. Therefore, rather than attempting to use the myricetin molecule as a systemic drug in the form of a pill that mixes with the blood and spreads throughout the body, it may be more reasonable and logical to use it topically, applied to the skin surface, without conducting detailed biological activity experiments or working on animal models. In inflammatory bowel diseases that may occur in the stomach and intestines, it has the potential to exert its effects through direct contact.

With its ecological diversity, geographical features, and with the existence of floral microhabitats, Kazakhstan is one of the suitable countries for sustainable beekeeping practices. Beekeeping is not limited to obtaining quality honey, it is equally about to obtain other beekeeping products such as pollen, propolis, royal jelly, bee bread, and bee venom, and the biological activities and potencies of such products are largely dependent on how these products are obtained. Sustainable practices require optimal conditions both for collection and storage.

Beyond the pharmacokinetic characterization of kaempferol, galangin, myricetin, and quercetin the present study highlights the strategic importance of Kazakhstan’s beekeeping sector as a sustainable source of bioactive compounds with pharmaceutical potential. Integrating computational pharmacology with apicultural research provides a valuable framework for identifying high-value natural products, supporting evidence-based apitherapeutic applications, and enhancing the international competitiveness of Kazakhstan’s bee products through scientific validation. It should be stressed that while in silico analyses generally lead to promising prospects for various natural bioactive substances, experimental studies conducting both in vitro and in vivo analyses should carry out to validate computational results, which is the case for myricetin investigated in this paper. While bee products have an increased interest in academic research, vigorous studies remain as necessity for precise results, which is also necessary to further understand and validate its promising clinical potential as a natural product. Such research would also contribute to improvement of beekeeping practices.

This study is entirely computational (in silico), no human, animal, or biological data were used, and ethical approval was therefore not required.

AI-based tools were used for initial drafting and language editing of the manuscript. All scientific decisions and interpretations were made exclusively by the authors.

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Grant information

This study was supported by grant BR24992814 from the Scientific Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan, awarded for the development of innovative technologies and scientific infrastructure for the sustainable development of the South Kazakhstan region
The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

Copyright

© 2026 Kaya Ş et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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